EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 



ENGLISH. 

Alden's Intellectual Philosophy. 
Appletons' Readers: 

First Reader. Second Reader. Third Reader. 
Reader. Fifth Reader. Int'y Fourth Reader. 
Appletons' Chart Primer. 

Elementary Heading Charts. 

Patent Map and Chart Supporter. 

New Elementary Geography. 

— — Higher Geography. 

Physical Geography. 

Appletons' Standard Arithmetics : 

I. Numbers Illustrated. II. Numbers Applied. 
Appletons* Penmanship : 

Lead-Pencil Course. Short Course. 

Tracing Course. Grammar Course, 

Appletons' Writing Charts. With Supporter. 
Arnott's Physics. 

Atkinson's Ganot's Natural pYiilrvennTiv. 
Ay 

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Brignt s traded instruction in English. 
Bryant Leaflets. 

Clark's L. L. L., or Fifty Law Lessons. 
Clark's Elements of Chemistry. 
Chichester's Original-Drawing Book. 
Choate's Elements of English Speech. 
Coe's Drawing Cards. 
Cornell's Primary Geography. 

Intermediate Geography. 

Physical Geography. 

First Steps in Geography. 

• Map-Drawing Cards. 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 

Cornell's Series of Outline Maps. 

DeGraff's Exercise Book. 

Dennis's Study of Leaves. 

Desclianel's Natural Philosophy. By J. D. Everett. Four Parts. 

Everett's Outlines of Natural Philosophy. 

Eroebel's Education of Man. Edited by W. N. Hallmann. 

Gillespie's Treatise on Surveying. By Professor Cadt Staley. 

Gilmore's English Language and Literature. 

Logic. 

Green's Slate Drawing Cards. 

Greenwood's Principles of Education Practically Applied. 

Heilprin's Historical Reference Book. 

Henslow's Botanical Charts. With Excelsior Supporter. 

History Primers. Edited by J. R. Greerj, M. A. 

Rome. Greece. Europe. Old Greek Life. Geography. Ro- 
man Antiquities. France. Medleval Civilization. Roman 
Constitution. 

Hodgson's Errors in the Use of English. School Edition. 

Holder's Elements of Zoology. 

Huxley and Youmans's Physiology and Hygiene. 

Johonnot's Natural History Readers : 

I. Cats and Dogs, and other Friends. IT. Friends in Feathers and 
Fur. Ill (1). Neighbors with Winofs and Fins. Ill (2). Some Cu- 
rious Fivers, Creepers, and Swimmers. IV. Neighbors with 
Claws and Hoofs. V. The Animate World. 

Johonnot's Historical Readers : 

I. Grandfather's Stories. II. Stories of Heroic Deeds. Ill (1). Sto- 
ries of our Country. Ill (2). Stories of other lands. IV (1). 
Stories of the Olden Time. IV (2). Ten Great Events in History. 
V. How Nations Grow and Decay. 

Johonnot's Geographical Reader. 

Sentence and Word Book. 

Principles and Practice of Teaching. 

Johonnot and Bouton's Elementary Physiology. 
Kiehle's New Practical Arithmetic. 

Krusi's System of Drawing. 

Easy "Lessons. Three Parts. 

Synthetic Series. Four Books and Manual. 

Analytic Series. Four Books and Manual. 

Perspective Series. Four Books and Manual. 

Supplementary Series. Six Books. 

— • Drawing Tablets. 

Textile Designs. By Charles Kastner. Six Books. 

Outline and Relief Designs. By E. C. Cleaves. Six Books. 

Mechanical Drawing. By F. B. Morse. Six Books. 

Architectural Drawing. By Charles Babcock. Nine Books. 

Laurie's Rise of Universities. 

!Laughlin's Elements of Political Economy. 

Study of Political Economy. 



A COMPLETE GRADED COXJESE 



IN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR AJSTD 
COMPOSITION 




/ 



BY. 



benj/y. conklin, 

PRINCIPAL OF GRAMMAR SCHOOL NO. 3, BROOKLYN. N. Y. 








1 



I 



NEW YORK, BOSTON, AND CHICAGO 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

1889 



\ 






Copyright, 1888, 
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 



PEEFACE. 



This book is designed to be a practical working manual 
for the assistance of the teacher as well as the pupil. The 
author has sought to present the subject in an easy, natural, 
and progressive way, and, as far as possible, to avoid repetition ; 
yet, by a judicious selection of graded sentences and carefully 
arranged questions for review, to keep before the mind of the 
learner what he has already learned. 

Indeed, in their gradation, the sentences themselves are a 
concrete presentation of the whole subject. The questions at 
the end of the lessons are so framed as to require the pupil, 
after studying the text carefully, to formulate his own answers. 
This fact will often make it necessary for the teacher to exam- 
ine a lesson with the class before assigning it to be learned. 

The theory of the book is the gradual development of the 
sentence ; the method, inductive. Beginning with the simplest 
form of the sentence, as " Birds fly," only one new element is 
added in any single lesson ; so that a thorough mastery of each 
lesson ought to result. 

The author has endeavored to avoid an excess of language- 
work on the one hand, and too much formal parsing and anal- 
ysis on the other. Analysis and synthesis are carried along to- 
gether, in due proportion and relation. By this method of 
treatment, the pupil acquires not only a knowledge of the 
structure of the sentence, but also the power to use language. 



i Y PREFACE, 

From the beginning to page 60, the gradual development of 
the sentence, and the nature and office of the different parts 
of speech, are the leading features. Not till pupils become 
familiar with the relations that the words in a sentence bear 
to each other, are they prepared to learn the proper forms that 
words should assume to suit those relations; the learning of 
these forms should therefore be deferred until this point has 
been reached. 

The book is sufficiently elementary in the beginning to be 
put into the hands of pupils in the lowest grammar grades, 
and sufficiently advanced to cover all that is required of the 
highest grammar classes, thus compassing the entire range of 
the usual tivo-book course. It is intended to be taught in the 
order in which it is arranged ; but those who may prefer to 
teach the attribute complement, or the conjugation of the verb, 
before its introduction in the regular course, will find little 
inconvenience in doing so. 

Instead of examples of false syntax for correction, exercises 
are given for filling out sentences by supplying the correct 
forms of words in blank spaces, which, perhaps, is a better way 
of accomplishing the same object. But for the convenience of 
such teachers as deem the correction of false syntax profitable, 
carefully selected examples are given in the appendix. 

The aim of the book is to make the study of English gram- 
mar more interesting, and thus to render the progress of the 
pupil in it more rapid, and his mastery of it more complete. 

As to the merits of the book, and the wisdom of the plan, 
the author leaves his co-workers to judge for themselves. 

B. Y. Conklik. 

Brooklyn, N. Y., November, 1888. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction: Objects — Ideas; Noun; Verb; Sentence . . 1-11 

Grammar — its Divisions 12 

Parts of Speech ; Table ; Definition ....... 13 

Simple Subject and Predicate 14-15 

Adjectives — Descriptive and Limiting ; Modified Subject . . 16-19 

Analysis and Composition 20-23 

Articles ; Synthesis ; Composition 24-27 

Adverbs — Modified Predicate ; Analysis ; Composition . . . 28-32 

Conjunctions — Simple and Compound Sentences .... 33-34 

Analysis and Synthesis ; Composition 35-37 

Transitive Verbs — Object Complement ; Analysis .... 38-43 

Synthesis ; Models for Written Analysis 44-45 

Diagramming 46 

Nouns — Common and Proper ; Composition ; Letter-writing . 47-53 

Pronouns — General Use 54 

Contracted Compound Sentences ; Analysis ; Synthesis . . 54-59 

Nouns and Pronouns — Inflection 60-91 

Quotations — Direct and Indirect 92 

Oral Parsing Models 93-94 

Double Possessive Forms ; Relative Pronouns .... 95-97 

Verbs — Tense and Number ; Synthesis 98-102 

Verbs — Agreement with Subject ; Composition .... 103-108 

Natural and Rhetorical Order of Words . . . . . . 109-110 

Analytical Parsing Ill 

Interrogative Adjectives and Adverbs ...... 112 

Review by Sentences ; Synthesis 113-115 

Prepositions — Adverbial Objective ; Analysis ; Synthesis . . 116-138 

Words Misused ; Analysis ; Intermediate Expressions . . . 139-142 

Abbreviated Compounds ; Series of Words ; Punctuation . . 143-147 

Uses of Articles ; Arrangement of Adjectives ; Punctuation . . 148-152 

Verbs — Regular and Irregular 153-156 

Apposition ; Analysis ; Possessive Case ; Synthesis . . . 157-162 



vi CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

How to use Sit, Set, Lie, and Lay , 163 

Attribute Complement ; Copula ; Analysis ; Parsing . . . 164-171 

Verbs — Active and Passive Voice 172-174 

Independent Element — Nouns ; Interjections .... 175-178 

Adjectives — Inflection ; Use ; Position 179-189 

Adverbs — Classes ; Use ; Formation 190-193 

Varying Parts of Speech 194 

Infinitives. 195-202 

Participles 203-210 

Conjunctive Adverbs — Complex Sentences ; Analysis . . . 211-213 
Relative Pronouns— Complex Sentences ; Analysis . . . 214-225 

Interrogative and Responsive Pronouns 226-227 

■"Abbreviated Clauses ; Nominative Absolute ; Synthesis . . 228-230 
Conjunctions— Co-ordinate, Subordinate, Correlative . . . 231-232 
Complex Sentences — Kinds ; Analysis ; Classification . . . 232-236 

Compound Sentences — Classification 237-238 

Elliptical Sentences — Analysis . . . . . . . 239-240 

Bad Construction Improved 241-242 

Punctuation — Semicolon and Colon 243-244 

Verbs — Modes ; Conjugation 245-258 

Analysis of Poetical Selections ; Poetic License .... 259-260 
Verbs — List ; Irregular and Defective . . . . . . . 261-263 

" — Infinitives ; Uses 264 

" —Shall and Will ; Uses . . . . . . . . 265-266 

Rules — Capital Letters 267 

" —Syntax 268 

Composition— Subjects 269-270 

APPENDIX— Diagramming 271-278 

Rhetorical Figures . 285-286 

Versification . . . • 287 

Recasting Sentences 288 

Other Characters used in Writing . . . . . . 289-290 

Index 291-296 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 



If children could always hear correct language, they would learn to 
use it correctly. But many are accustomed to hear language full of 
glaring errors, and thus a habit of incorrect expression is formed both 
in speaking and in writing. To correct this habit is the work of the 
teacher. 

In teaching grammar, it should never be forgotten that the real object 
is to teach pupils how to speak and to write the English language cor- 
rectly, and how to read it intelligently. Analysis and parsing are only 
means to this end. 

Teachers should require pupils to write all their composition exercises 
neatly, and to re- write them — making all the corrections themselves — 
after the errors have been indicated by proper marks made by the teacher. 
Discretion must be used, however, in giving proper aid, at first, in making 
corrections. 

Teachers should not confine themselves entirely to the questions in 
the text-book, and they should avoid a stereotyped form of questioning. 

The questions in this book generally come after the text, and on this 
account pupils may not always be able to formulate concise answers to 
them ; therefore, before each lesson is assigned, it should be carefully read 
with the class, and judicious aid should be given in formulating answers. 

A great advantage is gained by recapitulating important points in 
each lesson at its close. The teacher should be specially careful to see 
that pupils thoroughly appropriate the thoughts contained in the text 
before requiring them to commit any part of a lesson to memory. 

In assigning subjects for compositions, teachers should be very careful 
not to select topics that are beyond the ability of pupils to comprehend, 
nor those that will require too much searching in books of reference. The 
object should be to get from pupils a correct expression of the thoughts 
that they already have, or that they may readily acquire by observation 
and reading, rather than to have them try to produce labored essays on 
abstract themes. 



ENGLISH 
GKAMMAK AND COMPOSITION. 



INTKODTJOTORY LESSONS. 

I.— OBJECTS— IDEAS. 

Questions. — 1. What things do you find in a garden ? 2. What do you 
see in the park! 3. What do you hear at a concert! 4. Mention five 
things you have seen in the street. 5. Mention ^ve things you see in 
this room. 

1. Things are called objects. We learn about such things, 
or objects, in various ways : 

We learn about some things by seeing them ; as, a man, a tree. 

We learn about some things by hearing them ; as, music, noise. 

We learn about some things by feeling them ; as, velvet, iron. 

We learn about some things by tasting them ; as, an orange, vinegar. 

We learn about some things by smelling them ; as, a rose, cologne. 

Questions. — We learn about some of these objects in more than one 
way. In how many ways do we learn about an orange 1 about velvet % 
about a clock % 

2. The sense of seeing, the sense of hearing, the sense of 
feeling, the sense of tasting, and the sense of smelling, are 
called the five senses. 

Direction. — Name the five senses. 

3. There are some things, however, that we do not perceive * 
through these five senses ; as, anger, joy, wisdom, memory. 

Anger is something ; something means some thing ; therefore, anger is 
an object. Memory, joy, and wisdom, are objects also. 

* Teachers should explain words that are not familiar to the pupil. 



2 INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 

4. We learn about such things as memory, joy, sorrotv, etc., 
by thinking about them. 

Direction. — Mention other things about which we learn by thinking. 

Questions. — How do we learn about houses ? gold ? silk % pain 1 life % 
flowers % apples % sugar % pride % folly % truth % pity } iron% kindness ? 
falsehood % milk ? Mention the five senses. 



II.— NAMES. 

5. When I say knife, or write knife, the ivord that I speak 
or write is not the object itself ; it is only the name of the 
object. 

Questions. — What are the words pencil, desk, boy, book 1 Is the boy- 
sitting beside you a name, or an object % If I call him a boy, or James, 
what are the words boy and James % 

6. Every thing that we can perceive by the senses, or that 
we can think about, has or may have a name. 

Questions. — 1. Is your desk a name or an object % 2. Is your hat a 
name ? 3. Is the word pencil a name % 4. Is the word hat a name % 5. 
What is your slate f 6. What is your knife ? 7. Has every object a name ? 

Direction. — Write three names of trees, in a column on your slate. 

Write three names of persons in the same way. 

Write three names of different natural divisions of the earth's surface. 
Also three names of each of the following things : Cities ; rivers ; things 
made of paper ; of leather ; of iron ; of glass ; of wood ; things found m a 
store ; things that we learn about by seeing ; by hearing ; by feeling ; by 
tasting ; by smelling ; by thinking. 

Questions for Review. — 1. How do we learn about objects? 2. How 
many senses have we ? Name them. 3. Is the pen you write with, a name 
or an object % 4. What is the word pen % 5. What is an object f 6. What 
do we learn about an orange by the sense of seeing % 7. What do we learn 
about it by the sense of feeling % 8. What do we learn about music by the 
sense of hearing ? 9. How do we learn about hardness % 10. Can we see 
goodness, or only the result of goodness? 11. How do we learn about 
light ? 12. How do we learn about heat % 13. Can we see pride, or only 
the result of pride % 



INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 



m.— NOUNS. 



7. Words that are names of objects, we may call name- 
words. In grammar they are called nouns, because the word 
noun means name. 

8. Definition. — A noun is a word used as a name. 

9. Objects may be separated into classes ; as, persons, ani- 
mals ; places, and tilings. 

A noun may be the name of a person ; as, boy, son, George, father. 
A noun may be the name of an animal ; as, dog, fox, horse, elephant. 
A noun may be the name of a place ; as, city, London, parJc, town. 
A noun may be the name of a thing ; as, cap, tree, foot, glass, truth. 

10. A noun is the name of any person, animal, place, or thing. 

Direction. — Write three names that are names of persons ; three each 
of animals, places, things found in the kitchen, things found in the earth, 
and things used by carpenters. 

Questions. — Is your hat a noun or an object % What is the word hat% 
Is the word horse a noun ? Is the word orange an object or the name of 
an object f Is your brother a noun ? 

11. Definition. — A noun that names only a single object 
is called a singular noun, or a noun in the singular num- 
ber ; as, hoy, girl, hat, chair. 

12. Definition. — A noun that names more than one object 
of the same kind is called a plural noun, or a noun in the 
plural number; as, boys, girls, hats, chairs. 

Questions for Review. — 1. What is a noun 1 2. Why is the word house 
a noun % 3. A noun may be the name of an object belonging to how many 
different classes % 4. Name the four different classes of objects mentioned 
in this lesson. 5. How many senses do we possess % .6. Name them. 7. 
By how many of the senses may we learn about a city? an apple? mem- 
ory % thunder ? lightning % fire ? milk ? velvet % 8. Is your book a noun 
or an object ? 9. What is the difference between a noun and an object % 
10. What is a singular noun ? 11. What is a plural noun? 12. To which 
class of nouns does City Hall belong ? 13. To which of the four classes 
does grasshopper belong % 14. To what class does cousin belong 1 



/ 



INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 



IV.— SENTENCES. 



♦ Questions. — The names of a number of objects have been written and 

mentioned. Do any of these objects act, or do anything? Do horses^ 

Do people % Do birds % 

Direction. — Think about these three objects — birds, frogs, dogs— and 

tell what they do. 

Exercise. — John, state your thought about what birds do. "Birds 

sing." 

James, was that your thought about birds ? " No, sir. Birds fly." 
William, state your thought about what frogs do. " Frogs jump." 
Charles, state your thought about what dogs do. " Dogs bark." 
Each boy has stated or expressed his thought ; in other words, each 

has made a statement ; each has asserted a fact. 

How did you state or express your thoughts! "We expressed our 

thoughts in words." 

Is there any other way of expressing our thoughts % " We can express 

thoughts by motions or signs." 

How do we generally express our thoughts f 

13. The statement, " Birds sing," is called a sentence ; so 
are the statements, " Frogs jump," and " Dogs bark." 

14. Sentences are either spoken or written. 

15. Definition. — A sentence is a combination of words so 
arranged as to make complete sense. 

Questions. — 1. In how many ways may we express our thoughts ? 2. 
What name is given to the statement, " Wolves howl " % Why % 3. What 
is a sentence? 4. Make two sentences stating how horses travel; one, 
stating what kind of noise monkeys make ; one, stating what kind of noise 
pigs make. 

V.— VERBS, 

1. The dog barks. 

Explanation. — In this sentence, dog is the name of the object that does 
something, and the word barks shows what the dog does. 

1. The bird sings. 

2. The duck swims. 

3. The horse runs. 



INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 5 

Questions. — 1. What does the word sings show in sentence 1 % 2. What 
does the word swims show in sentence 2 ? 3. What does the word runs 
show in sentence 3 % 

Direction. — Select, in the eight following sentences, the name of that 
which does something, and also the word which tells what it does. 

MODEL. 
" The soldier fights " is a sentence, because it is an arrangement of 
words making complete sense. Soldier is the name of the person that 
does something ; and fights tells what the soldier does. 

1. The soldier fights. 5. Fire burns. 

2. The horse trots. 6. The bird flies. 

3. Grass grows. 7. The rat gnaws. 

4. The snake crawls. 8. The diamond sparkles. 

Explanation. — In the sentence, " The soldier fights," the word fights 
expresses an action. Words that are used to express action may be called 
action-ivords ; in grammar they are called verbs. 

16. In each of these eight sentences a statement or assertion 
is made, and the verb is the word that makes the assertion. 

17. Definition. — The tvord used to assert something of some 
person or thing is called a verb. 

18. Every sentence must contain a verb. A verb is some- 
times composed of more than one word ; as, " Dogs will bark." 

Direction. — Select the verb in each of these eight sentences, tell why it 
is a verb, and also what person or thing the assertion is made about. 



VL-COMPOSITION LESSON. 

Direction. — Form sentences by writing a verb in the blank space after 
each noun, so that it will make sense, beginning each sentence with a 
capital letter, and ending it with a period : 

1. Ducks 5. Flowers 9. Bears 

2. Wolves 6. Trees 10. Apples 

3. Girls 7. Fire 11. Beys 

4. Men 8. Rivers 12. Birds 

19 Rule. — Every sentence must begin with a capital letter. 



6 INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 

Direction. — Form sentences by writing a noun in the blank space before 
each verb, being careful to attend to capitals and punctuation : 

1. ride, 5. drink. 9. melts. 

2. grow. 6. fight. 10. smile. 

3. sail. 7. run. 11. creep. 

4. plow. 8. study. 12. steal. 

Direction. — After writing these sentences correctly, select the nouns 

and verbs, and tell why they are nouns or verbs. 

MODEL. 

"Ladies ride" is a sentence, because it is a combination of words 
making complete sense. " Ladies " is a noun, because it is a name. 
" Ride " is a verb, because it expresses action. 

Note. — Sentences should express what is true or reasonable. 

1. Birds teach. 4. Ladies croak. 7. Dogs chirp. 

2. Snakes bark. 5. Horses sing. 8. Men fly. 

3. Growl crickets. 6. Crawl frogs. 9. Pishes trot. 

Questions. — Do these words as they are here arranged make complete 
sense % Are they proper sentences 1 Why not ? 

Direction. — Select such nouns and verbs as will, when combined, make 
complete sense. 

Review Questions. — 1. What is a sentence? 2. With what must the 
first word of a sentence begin? 3. What is a noun? 4. Is the noun 
wolves singular or plural 1 5. What is a verb ? 6. What is the singular 
of each noun in these nine sentences % 7. What must every sentence con- 
tain % 8. How must each sentence begin and end % 

VII.— DECLARATIVE SENTENCE. 

Remark. — This lesson, and the three that immediately follow, are given 
here to aid pupils in reading, in writing short compositions, and also to 
prepare the way for the analysis of sentences. The sentences given, how- 
ever, should not be used for analysis, as they are unsuitable for this pur- 
pose for beginners. 

20. A sentence may be a statement, a question, a com- 
mand, or an exclamation. 

1. Henry jumped. 

2. Mary laughed. 



INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 7 

Explanation. — Sentence 1, "Henry jumped," is a statement ; it states or 
declares a fact, and is therefore a declarative sentence. So is sentence 2. 

21. Definition. — A declarative sentence declares or as- 
serts a fact. 

22. Some sentences do not declare facts, as will be seen by observing 
the following: 

1. Henry jumped. A statement or assertion — declarative sentence. 

2. Did Henry jump? A question — interrogative sentence. 

3. Do not jump, Henry. A command or entreaty — imperative sentence. 

4. 0, how Henry jumped ! An exclamation — exclamatory sentence. 

Names of persons, like Henry, John, Mary, are called proper nouns, 
and must always begin with a capital letter. Other nouns, like hoy, girl, 
man, desk, are common nouns, and must not begin with a capital letter 
unless they begin a sentence. 

Questions. — 1. Why must did and do, in 1 and 2, begin with a capital 
letter % 2. Why must 1 end with a period f 3. What kind of a sentence 
is 2 % 3 ? 4 % 4. What four things may a sentence be made to express % 

23. Rule. — Every declarative sentence must end with a 
period. 

Direction. — Form declarative sentences by writing a verb in each of 
the blank spaces below, observing the rule for punctuation : 

1. Parrots 4. Snow 7. Spiders 

2. Weeds 5. Mice 8. Rivers 

3. Robins 6. Boys 9. Snails 

Direction. — Fill out the following sentences by using proper nouns in 
1, 3, and 5, and common nouns in the others : 

1. The dog bit . 4. The dog swam across the -. 

2. eat hay. 5. The man called . 

3. The hunter shot a . 6. The girls went to . 



VIII.— INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE. 

1. Did Henry jump? 

Questions. — When I say, " Did Henry jump % " do I state a fact % Do 
I ask a question ? 



8 INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 

24. A sentence used to ask a question is called an inter- 
rogative sentence, because to interrogate means to ask. 

25. Definition. — An interrogative sentence is one that 
asks a question. 

Direction. — Write the following sentences, tell what kind each is, and 
why, and place the proper punctuation mark after each : 

26. Rule. — Every interrogative sentence must end with an 
interrogation point. 

1. John found a ball 4. Did James buy a top 

2. Where is my book 5. When did you come back 

3. Mary went to school 6. The farmer sows his seed 

Direction. — Change the following sentences into interrogative sen- 
tences, and place the proper punctuation mark after each : 

1. They retired early. 4. Boys like fun. 

2. Mary is happy. 5. Girls like nice dresses. 

3. William can write neatly. 6. John found a knife. 

Questions. — 1. What kind of sentences are these as they are here 
printed ? Why ? 2. What is a declarative sentence ? 3. An interrogative 
sentence? 4. What punctuation mark must follow a declarative sentence? 
5. How must a sentence begin ? 6. How must an interrogative sentence 
end? 

IX.-IMPERATTVE SENTENCE. 

1. Henry, stop that noise. 

2. Do not jump. 

3. Give me some bread. 

Questions. — Does sentence 1 make a statement ? Does it ask a ques- 
tion? Does 2? Does 3? 

Explanation. — Sentence 1 makes a command. Sentence 2 makes an 
earnest request. Sentence 3 expresses a strong wish. 

Such sentences as these three are called imperative sentences, because 
the word imperative means commanding. 

27. Definition. — An imperative sentence is one that 
makes a command, or an earnest request. 



INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 9 

Direction. — Write the following sentences, and tell what kind each is, 
and why, and place the proper punctuation mark after each : 

28. Rule. — Every imperative sentence should end with a 

period. 

1. John, bring me that book 

2. William bought this book yesterday 

3. Do not let the book fall 

4. Where did Henry buy the book 

5. Mary, do not soil the book 

6. Bring the book to me 

7. Will you lay this book on the table 

8. How often must T speak to you 



X.-EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE, 

When our feelings are excited either by anger, fear, joy, or sorrow, we 
express ourselves with strong feelings, or emotion ; that is, we cry out, or 
exclaim. 

Direction. — Write the following sentences, and tell which express 
strong feeling : 

1. This lake is beautiful. 3. It thunders. 

2. 0, what a beautiful lake 4. Did you hear it? 

this is ! 5. How dreadfully it thunders ! 

Questions. — Does sentence 1 express emotion % Does 2 ? Does 3 % 
Does 4 f Does 5 f 

29. Definition. — An exclamatory sentence is one that 
expresses strong feeling or emotion. 

Direction. — Write the following sentences ; determine the class to 
which each belongs ; place the proper punctuation mark after each, and 
give reasons: 

30. Rule. — Every exclamatory sentence should end with an 
exclamation point ( ! ). 

1. Did William laugh 6. See that beautiful bird 

2. How fast it rains 7. Bring me the bell 

3. 0, how that child cries 8. Joseph ate an apple 

4. Bring the child to me 9. Do not spill the ink 

5. How the wind blows 10. What a beautiful garden you have 

2 



10 COMPOSITION. 

Eeview Questions. — What are the four classes of sentences into which 
language is divided?* 1. What is a declarative sentence! 2. With what 
should a declarative sentence end % 3. What is an interrogative sentence % 
4. With what should an interrogative sentence end ? 5. What is an im- 
perative sentence? 6. With what should an imperative sentence end? 
7. What is an exclamatory sentence ? 8. With what should an exclama- 
tory sentence end ? 9. What is a sentence ? 10. What is a noun ? 11. 
What is a verb ? 



XI.— COMPOSITION LESSON. 

31. Arrangement. — Margin, of about an inch and a half at 
the top of the page. 

Heading, in the middle of the page (from left to right). 

Heading, must begin with a capital letter, end with a period. 

Principal words in the subject must begin with a capital 
letter. 

Margin, of about three quarters of an inch on the left of 
the page. 

Paragraph line, half an inch to the right of the marginal 
line. 

32. Punctuation. — Words spoken or written by another per- 
son, when introduced into one's own composition, must be 
inclosed in quotation marks (" "). 

A hyphen ( - ) must join the last syllable of an unfinished 
word, at the end of the line, to the rest of the word. 

A new paragraph may be made when there is a change 
from any particular part of the subject, about which we are 
writing, to something different. 

33. Rule. — The first word of a full quotation must begin 
with a capital letter. 

Directions. — Copy the following composition, observing carefully the 
arrangement, capitals, and punctuation : 

* Pupils should frequently be required to distinguish these four classes of sen- 
tences in their reading-lessons. 



COMPOSITION. 11 

THE PERFUME OF FLOWERS.* 

Some flowers have no odor whatever. By odor we mean any smell, 
whether agreeable or offensive. The elegant japonicas of various colors, 
and the beautiful cactus, in all its varieties, have little or no odor. 

There are some flowers that give out an odor that is not fragrant. A 
fragrant flower is one that emits an agreeable smell. The dahlia emits an 
odor that is not fragrant. Perfume is only another name for fragrance. 

Every fragrant flower is a perfume-factory. Sometimes a large num- 
ber of these factories of one kind grow together, and then the air is filled 
with the perfume that they make. 

The fragrance from the flowers of the grape-vine is very delicious. It 
is of this that Solomon speaks when he says, " The vines with the tender 
grape give a goodly smell." f And yet the flowers are so small and so 
near the color of the stem and leaves that you would not notice them 
unless you looked particularly for them. 

Direction.— For a subsequent lesson, write this on the blackboard in 
solid form, leaving out periods and quotation marks, and require pupils to 
replace them properly, and to break the composition into paragraphs. Or, 
the paragraph may be dictated to the class. 

Questions. — 1. How many margins should there be on a page of written 
composition % 2. How wide must they be % 3. Where must each paragraph 
begin % 4. Why does " Solomon " begin with a capital letter % 5. What 
punctuation marks inclose what Solomon said! Why? 6. Of what do 
these marks consist? 7. Are the commas inverted at the right or the left 
of the words inclosed % 8. For what is the hyphen used in this lesson. 

* "The Perfume of Flowers " is the heading. 

t When only a part of a sentence is quoted, the first word should not begin with a 
capital letter ; as, Mary used the words, " a fragrant flower,' ' in the wrong sense. 



12 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 



XII.— THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

34. Definition. — English Grammar teaches how to speak, 
to iorite j and to read the English language correctly. 

The object of language is the intercommunication of thought. We 
have already learned that our thoughts are expressed in sentences, and 
that sentences are composed of words. Grammar may therefore be said to 
treat of sentences and of the words that compose them. 

35. Orthography treats of letters and their combination 
into syllables and words [spelling]. 

36. That part of grammar which treats of words separately, 
is called etymology. 

37. That part of grammar which treats of words combined 
in sentences, is called syntax. 

38. Syntax* treats of the arrangement of words in sen- 
tences according to established usage ; in other words, syntax 
treats of the relation which words bear to one another in a 
sentence. 

Questions. — 1. What is English grammar % 2. What is orthography ? 
3. What is etymology ? 4. What is syntax % 

There are many thousands of words in the English language ; yet they 
may be assorted into eight different groups or classes, each class having a 
name of its own. 

39. Many of the words of our language are names, and 
belong to the class called nouns. A large number of words ex- 
press action, and are classed as verbs. The following arrange- 
ment will show the division of words into the eight classes : 

* This may be omitted, if it is desired, till needed in the regular order of progress. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



13 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Nouns. 


Pro- 
nouns. 


Adjec- 
tives. 


Verbs. 


Adverbs. 


Conjunc- 
tions. 


Preposi- 
tions. 


Interjec- 
tions. 


Joseph 

horse 

street 

man 

tree 

table 






jump 

swim 

run 

sing 

cry 

walk 











If these columns were long enough, all the names in the language 
could be put in the noun column, all the verbs in the verb column, all the 
adjectives in the column for adjectives, etc., thus separating the words of 
the language into eight classes. The noun and verb columns are here filled 
because these two parts of speech have been used in the preceding lessons. 



40. Each of these eight classes of words- 
etc. — is called a part of speech. 



-nouns, pronouns, 



Questions. — 1. What part of speech is horse, table, man, Joseph, walk, 
swim, run, tree, sing, jump, street, cry% 2. How many parts of speech 
are there ? 

Eemark. — The names of the eight parts of speech are not now to be 
memorized. They are here introduced to show pupils what they will have 
to learn. These names can be fixed in the pupil's mind, however, by re- 
quiring him to reproduce the diagram every time a new part of speech is 
taken up, and to fill the proper column with words of the new part of 
speech, taken from the sentences used, and by asking each time how many 
of the eight he has learned, and how many yet remain to be learned. 

41. Definition. — A part of speech is one of the classes 
of words into which the language is separated. 

In order to determine to which of these eight classes the different 
words in our language belong, we must discover the use of each in a sen- 
tence ; or, in other words, what they do in a sentence. 

Questions. — 1. What is a noun % 2. What is a verb ? 3. What is a sen- 
tence ? 4. What is meant by a part of speech ? 5. How many parts of 
speech are there % 6. Of how many parts of speech do you know some- 
thing % 7. How may we determine to which part of speech a word belongs ? 



14 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

XIII.-SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

1. Horses trot. 

2. Wasps sting. 

Questions.— 1. When I say, "Horses trot," about what do I speak? 
2. What do I say about horses f 

42. There are tivo parts in every sentence : first, that about 
which the assertion is made ; and, second, what is said or 
asserted of it. 

Direction. — Write the following sentences, and mention the name of 
the person or thing about which the assertion is made in each ; also state 
what is asserted in each. Care should be taken with punctuation and 
capitals : 

1. Men talk. 4. People think. 

2. Monkeys chatter. 5. Parrots imitate. 

3. Crickets chirp. 6. Wasps sting. 

43. Definition. — The subject of a sentence is that part 
about which something is asserted. 

44. Definition. — The predicate of a sentence is that part 
which makes the assertion. 

Direction. — Name the subject and the predicate in each of the six 
preceding sentences. 

Note. — In the sentence, " Children sing," the word children is a noun, 
and it is also the subject in the sentence; noun is its part of speech, 
name, and subject is its sentence name. Sing is a verb, and it is also 
the predicate in the sentence ; verb is its part of speech, name, and 
predicate is its sentence name. 

45. Definition. — A verb is a word used to assert some- 
thing of its subject. [18.] 

Note. — The verb is the predicate when it is used alone to make an 
assertion about the subject. In the sentence, " John spoke hastily," the 
whole predicate is spoke hastily ; but the verb spoke is the most impor- 
tant word used in making the assertion. 

Remark. — To assert is to affirm or to declare that a thing is, or is not 
so. But assertions are considered by grammarians to include commands 
and questions. 



SIMPLE SUBJECT AND SIMPLE PREDICATE. 15 

Questions. — 1. What is the subject of a sentence! 2. What is the 
predicate of a sentence ? 3. What is an assertion % 4. What, besides state- 
ments, do assertions include % 5. Is " Will you go 1 " a statement ? 6. Is 
" Bring the book to me " a statement % 7. In " Wasps sting," what are 
the part of speech names % 8. What are the sentence names ? 9. How 
many names has a noun in a sentence % 10. How many names has a verb in 
a sentence! 11. What are they! 12. How many parts to every sentence? 
13. What is a verb! 



XIV.-SIMPLE SUBJECT AND SIMPLE PREDICATE. 

1. Men walk. 

2. Children cry. 

Direction. — In selecting the subject and predicate, look first for the 
predicate. Then ask a question by using who or what before the verb, 
thus : Who walk ! Answer, " Men. Therefore, men is the subject." In 
this way find the subject in each of the following sentences : 

1. Kobins sing. 5. Cherries ripen. 

2. Hens cackle. 6. Men work. 

3. Lions roar. 7. Calves bellow. 

4. Lilies bloom. 8. Babies cry. 

46. The subject of a sentence sometimes names the actor; 
the verb expresses the action ; as, " Men eat" " Men ivrite" 
"Men think" [mind action]. "Girls study" [mind action]. 
"Boys play." 

47. The sentences used in this lesson are of the simplest 
kind, for in each there is only a single word [noun] for the 
subject, and a single ivord [verb] for the predicate. Such a 
subject is called a simple subject, and such a predicate is 
called a simple predicate. 

Direction. — Supply a simple subject for each of the following verbs : 

1. twinkle. 5. study. 

2. growl. 6. smile. 

3. squeal. 7. gnaw. 

4. flows. 8. steal. 



16 ADJECTIVES. 

Direction. — Supply a simple predicate for each of the following sub- 
jects : 



1. Farmers 

2. Snakes 

3. Bees 

4. Fishes 

5. Flowers 

6. Rain 



7. Stars 

8. Lions 

9. Wolves 

10. Cows 

11. Rats 

12. Birds 



Review Questions. — 1. What is a singular noun? Plural noun? 2. 
What does English grammar teach ? 3. Of what may English grammar 
be said to treat? 4. What is etymology? 5. What is syntax? 6. Into 
how many classes are all the words in the language grouped ? 7. What 
general name is given to these groups ? 8. Of how many of these parts of 
speech have we learned something? 9. What two important parts in 
every sentence? 10. What is the subject of a sentence? 11. What is the 
predicate of a sentence ? 12. How may you find the subject ? 13. What 
is an assertion ? 14. What do assertions include ? 



XV.— ADJECTIVES.-MODIFIED SUBJECT. 

1. Boys study. 4. People sleep. 

2. Birds sing. 5. Dogs bark. 

3. Vines grow. 6. Children play. 

Direction. — Select the subject and predicate in these sentences accord- 
ing to the following : 

MODEL. 

" Boys study " is a declarative * sentence. The noun boy is the sub- 
ject, because it is the part about which something is asserted ; the verb 
study is the predicate, because it asserts something of the subject. 

48. In these sentences, boys and birds and vines in general are spoken 
of ; i. e., any boys, any birds, any vines. But we may wish to speak of a 
particular kind of boys, or birds, or vines. To do this, we must use some 
word with each of these nouns that will show what particular kind is 
meant; thus: • 



* The designation "simple sentence' 1 is deferred until pupils are ready to take 
up compound sentences, as the term " simple " will be better understood when the 
term compound is used in contrast with it. 



ADJECTIVES. 17 

1. Good boys study. 4. Weary people sleep. 

2. Little birds sing. 5. Ugly dogs bark. 

3. TAe.se vines grow. 6. Happy children play. 

49. Such words as good, little, these, weary, ugly, and 
happy, used with nouns to describe or limit their meaning, 
are called adjectives. 

Explanation. — The adjective good describes boys by showing the hind 
of boys spoken of. Good also limits [confines] boys to the class called 
good. These does not describe ; it only limits by pointing out. 

50. Adjectives describe when they tell what hind of a per- 
son or thing is meant ; as, honest man ; sweet apple. 

51. Some adjectives limit nouns without describing them ; 
they simply point out', as, this book; that hat; these books; 
those hats; the boy; some apples. 

52. Other adjectives limit nouns by expressing number ; as, 
two men ; tiventy-five dollars ; first boy. 

Explanation. — The expression good boys does not mean the same as 
boys used alone ; nor does the expression these vines mean the same as 
vines used alone ; therefore, good used with hoys, or these used with vines, 
changes or varies the meaning of these nouns. 

53.' The word modify means to change somewhat', there- 
fore, good and these modify the nouns with which they are 
used. 

54. An adjective is a modifier ; this is its sentence name. 

Some adjectives describe. 
Some adjectives limit by pointing out. 
Other adjectives limit by expressing number. 
All adjectives modify. 

Direction. — In the following sentences, tell which adjectives describe, 
point out, or express number ; also tell what each modifies : 

1. Bad boys fight. 5. Industrious people work. 

2. One flower wilted. 6. Seven boys recited. 

3. Five stars appeared. 7. Wholesome food nourishes, 

4. That man sings. 8. Some people quarrel. 



18 ADJECTIVES.— MODIFIED SUBJECT. 

55. Definition. — An adjective is a word used to describe or 
limit the meaning of a noun. 

Questions. — 1. In the sentence, "Little birds sing," what part of speech 
is little % 2. When do adjectives describe % 3. How may adjectives limit, 
without describing % 4. Give an example. 5. What does the word modify 
mean % 6. How do adjectives modify nouns % 7. What is an adjective % 

XVI.— MODIFIED SUBJECTo 

1. The good boys obeyed. 4. Some dogs growl. 

2. That large ship sank. 5. Beautiful flowers decay. 

3. Those men smoke. 6. The sick child died. 
Explanation. — In sentence 1, the simple subject boys is modified by 

the adjective the, and also by the adjective good. 

Questions. — What is the simple subject in sentence 2 modified by? 
In 3, 4, 5, 6 ? Mention the predicate in each sentence. 

56. Nouns and verbs are the two most important parts of 
speech, because sentences can be formed with these alone. 
Hence, the simple subject r and the simple predicate are called 
the principal parts of a sentence. They are often called the 
principal elements. 

57. Definition. — An element is one of the parts of which 
anything is composed. 

58. Words used to modify the principal elements of a sen- 
tence are called dependent elements. Adjectives are, there- 
fore, dependent elements. 

Direction. — Mention the principal, and also the dependent, elements in 
the following sentences : 

1. The old wooden clock stopped. 3. That beautiful bird died. 

2. Warm air rises. 4. Those yellow flowers faded. 

59. Definition. — The simple subject, taken with all its modi- 
fiers, is called the modified* subject. 

* The modified subject is sometimes called the logical subject. The simple sub- 
ject is sometimes called the grammaticcd subject. 



DESCRIPTIVE AND LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 19 

Note. — In sentence 1, above, the simple subject is the noun clock ; the 
modified subject is the old wooden clock. 

Direction. — Write a subject, modified by one or more adjectives, for 
each of these verbs : lie, cheat, cry, talk, sing. 

Questions. — 1. What is the simple subject in 2 ? 2. The modified sub- 
ject ? 3. What is the simple subject in 3 f 4. The modified subject % 5. 
What is the simple subject in 4? 6. The modified subject? 7. What is 
an element % 8. What are the principal elements in a sentence % 9. What 
is a dependent element % 10. What is an adjective % 11. Is an adjective a 
principal, or a dependent, element % 12. What kind of element is a simple 
subject? 13. A simple predicate? 14. What general use, or office, do 
adjectives have in a sentence? 15. In what three ways do adjectives 
modify? 16. What is a modified subject? 17. By what other name is it 
known? 18. By what other name is the simple subject sometimes known? 



XVJX-DESCRXPTIVE AND LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 

60. Definition. — A descriptive adjective is one that de- 
scribes or qualifies the meaning of the noun with which it is used. 

Descriptive adjectives indicate the quality that is possessed by the 
thing named by the noun. When we speak of a sweet apple, the adjective 
sweet indicates the quality of the apple; that is, sweet shows that the 
apple possesses the quality called sweetness. Descriptive adjectives show 
color, size, kind ; as, white horse ; large house ; gentle lamb. 

61. Definition. — A limiting adjective merely limits or 
restricts the application of a noun with which it is used. 

Limiting adjectives show which things, how many things, quantity 
of things; as, the book; this river; that mountain; five houses; several 
stores; much sugar; some bread. 

Direction. — Select the descriptive, and also the limiting, adjectives in 
the following sentences, and tell what each adjective shows : 

1. Healthy children grow. 7. Those little girls laughed. 

2. The sun shines. 8. Three ladies sang. 

3. Both men returned. 9. That old clock stopped. 

4. Much rain fell. 10. Cold air descends. 

5. Ugly dogs bite. 11. Warm air rises. 

6. Foolish boys smoke. 12. Several carriages passed. 



20 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Direction. — Write two sentences containing descriptive adjectives, and 
three containing limiting adjectives. 

Questions. — 1. What is an adjective? 2. What is a descriptive adjec- 
tive ? 3. What do descriptive adjectives express ? 4. What is a limiting 
adjective ? 5. What do limiting adjectives express ? 6. What is the gen- 
eral or sentence name of any kind of an adjective ? 

Direction. — Draw a part of speech diagram (see page 13), and write all 
the words in these twelve sentences in their proper columns. 



XVIII.— ANALYSIS. 

62. Analysis, in grammar, is the separating of a sentence 
into its elements. 

Direction. — Analyze the following sentences according to the model 
here given : 

Eemark. — The analysis of sentences is greatly helpful to the learner, 
in enabling him to punctuate properly. It will also aid him in reading, 
for we should read by phrases and clauses. 

1. All good boys study. 

63. Model. — "All good boys study" is a declarative sentence; de- 
clarative, because it asserts a fact. The modified subject is all good boys ; 
the simple predicate is the verb study. * The simple subject boys is modi- 
fied by the adjectives oM and good. 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. The weary little child slept. 6. Four men rode. 

2. Profane men swear. 7. Several men walked. 

3. Wicked boys steal. 8. Industrious men prosper. 

4. Some insects sting. 9. Most animals swim. 

5. The old locomotive whistled. 10. The light snow drifted. 

Questions. — 1. Which nouns in these sentences are singular! 2. Which 
are plural ? 3. What is analysis ? 4. What is meant by the simple sub- 
ject? 5. What is meant by modified subject? 6. What is a descriptive 
adjective ? 7. A limiting adjective ? 8. What is an element ? 9. What is 
a principal element? 10. A dependent element? 11. What is the general 
office of an adjective ? 12. With what part of speech are adjectives used ? 



COMPOSITION. 21 

13. By what other name is the modified subject known ? 14. What is an 
interrogative sentence? 15. A declarative sentence! 16. An imperative 
sentence % 17. When are quotation marks used % 18. What are quotation 
marks? 19. When should the first word of a quotation not begin with 
a capital letter % 



XIX.-COMPOSITION WRITING. 

64. To Teachers. — We learn to use language by attempting to use it. 
Although composition writing should go hand in hand with instruction in 
grammar, yet the former must be largely separate from the latter until 
sufficient progress shall have been made by the pupil to enable him to 
understand how to correct the errors pointed out by the teacher. 

The object, in composition writing, should be to develop the percep- 
tion, the memory, and the imagination, as well as to teach the child to use 
language. Indeed, to aid the child in acquiring ideas is fully as important 
as to teach him the use of words. 

In carrying out this object, the child should be directed to observe 
carefully the things with which he comes in contact in his daily life ; such 
as flowers, fruits, trees, architecture, scenery, pictures, etc., so that he may 
be able to describe them at least with tolerable accuracy. In the descrip- 
tion of pictures, the imagination is cultivated rather than the perception ; 
besides, pictures give an erroneous idea of size, and no idea of weight and 
sound. Pictures, therefore, should not be used as subjects for compositions 
to the exclusion of others, nor too often in alternation with them. The 
memory should be brought into exercise by the narration of events, and, 
indeed, the teacher should use every means available to bring all the 
powers of the mind into active exercise. 

As pictures can be easily obtained, none are here given. The direc- 
tions, and the material for description and narration in the composition 
exercises, should not be considered exhaustive, but rather as suggestive ; 
nor are they necessarily to be taken exactly in the order given. 

Special Directions. — In the lower grammar grades, compositions should 
seldom be given for a home exercise, and never unless the subject has been 
worked up according to directions given farther on. It is very important 
that compositions should be carefully corrected (or errors indicated), that 
they should be returned to pupils for revision, again examined by the 
teacher to see if pupils have made the proper changes, and then carefully 
re-written. It is not the number of compositions, but the care with which 
they are written and re-ivritten that will insure success. 



22 COMPOSITION. 



XX.— COMPOSITION LESSONS. 

65. General Direction. — Before trying to describe an object, the differ- 
ent points for description should be selected in some regular order. These 
points may be brought out by asking questions about the object to be 
described. Ask questions about different points suggested by examining 
the object, or, if unobtainable, by talking about it, getting as great a vari- 
ety of answers as possible, and giving all necessary help in forming 
answers ; then make an orderly arrangement of the points to be described. 

Direction. — Taking " oranges " for description, ask the following ques- 
tions, and then examine with the class the " Topical Outline " here given. 
Require pupils to read the composition written from the outline, calling 
attention to the fact that the description follows the order of the points as 
they are arranged, and also that the paragraphs correspond to the divisions 
of the outline. 

ORAKGES. 

Questions. — 1. What are oranges? 2. In what kind of climate do they 
flourish? 3. Where are they obtained? 4. What is their average size? 
5. Their shape? 6. Their color? 7. What name is given to the outside 
of an orange ? 8. What, to the inside parts ? 9. What are they used for ? 
10. How do they taste? 

Topical Outline. 

f What they are. 
Climate where raised. 
Where obtained. 

r Size. 
General appearance. < Shape. 
I Color, 
r Peel : rough, oily. 

Parts \ Pulp : S ° f fc ' ^ Uicy ' SWeet ' 



Description of oranges. « 



I Seeds : numerous, in center. 
^ Cells : tough, contain seeds. 
Use : Food, uncooked. 

Direction. — For the next lesson, write the outline on the blackboard, 
and, after asking the questions given above, require the class to produce a 
composition which need not be an exact reproduction of the model in this 
lesson. 



COMPOSITION. 23 

ORANGES. 

Oranges are a kind of fruit raised in a warm climate in different coun- 
tries. We obtain oranges from the southern parts of Europe and of the 
United States, and also from the West Indies. 

In size, oranges average a little larger than apples. They are nearly 
round, and when ripe are of a deep yellow color. 

The outside of an orange is called the rind, or peel. The inside con- 
sists of the pulp and seeds ; and the seeds are inclosed in a tough sub- 
stance called cells. 

Oranges are used for food, and are generally very sweet and juicy. 
Sometimes, however, they are quite sour to the taste, especially when eaten 
before they are fully ripe. 

CHEKRIES. 

Questions. — 1. What are they? 2. How do they grow? 3. How does a 
cherry tree look when in full bloom ? 4. Which appears first, the blossom 
or the fruit ? 5. What is the size of cherries ? 6. Their shape ? 7. Their 
color ? 8. How do wild cherries compare in size with those that are culti- 
vated % 9. Is the skin of a cherry tough or tender ? 10. Is the pulp hard 
or soft, sweet or sour? 11. Does the cherry contain more than one seed? 
12. For what are cherries used ? 13. Are they eaten when unripe ? 

Topical Outline. 

What they are. 
How they grow. 

r Size : hazel-nut. 
General appearance. \ Shape : nearly round. 

I Color : various. 
Kinds: Wild, cultivated. 

r Skin : thin, tender. 
Parts. \ Pulp : soft, juicy, sweet, bitter. 

I Seed : single stones. 
Use : Food, when ripe, cooked or uncooked. 



XXI,— ADJECTIVES.— ARTICLES. 

66. The little words the, an, and a are really adjectives, 
because they are used with nouns, to limit them ; most gram- 
marians, however, give them another name — articles. 



Description of cherries. 



24 ADJECTIVES.— AR TICLES. 

67. The is called the definite article because it points out some par- 
ticular object or objects. Definite means particular. 

63. An and a are called indefinite articles because they do not point 
out any particular object, indefinite means not particular {in = not). 

A is an * with the n omitted. 

69. In this book, the, an, and a are called adjectives. 

70. It is necessary to learn when to use a, and when to use 
an. If one should say, "A orange dropped," or " An cow 
bellowed," it would sound strange ; but, "An ox bellowed " is 
correct, and so is "A cow eats grass." 

A and an mean one. They are used only with singular nouns. The 
may be used with either singular or plural nouns. 

An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound. 

A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound. 

A vowel is a letter that can be sounded alone in a word or syllable. 
A consonant is a letter that can be sounded in a word or syllable only in 
connection with a vowel. 

71. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u ; also w and y, when not 
before a vowel sounded in the same syllable ; as, vietv, newly, 
by, eive. All the other letters are consonants. 

In ewe, w comes before the vowel e, but the e is not sounded ; there- 
fore, w in ewe is a vowel. 

W and y, before a vowel sounded in the same syllable, are consonants ; 
as, wet, whet, swing, re-ward, ^/outh, im-2/ield-ing. 

72. Words beginning with silent h, begin with a vowel 
sound ; therefore we say, " an hour " ; " an honorable man." 

Some writers use an before a word beginning with h not silent, when 
such word is not accented on the first syllable ; as, " An historical essay." 

Questions, — 1. What are w and y when they begin words? 2. When 
they end words! 3. What is w in ewe? 4. Why? 5. When is a used? 
6. When is an used ? 7. When are w and y consonants ? 

* An and a are contractions of the Anglo-Saxon word ane, meaning one. After- 
ward the e was dropped, and an was used before words beginning with vowels and 
consonants. For the sake of ease in speaking, the n was finally dropped before 
words beginning with consonant sounds, leaving an before vowel sounds only. 



THE ADJECTIVES A AND AN. 25 

XXII.— PROPER USE OF A AND AN. 

Direction. — After giving pupils a thorough review on the sounds of 
the vowels * and consonants, require them to select from the following 
words those that begin with a vowel sound : Honest, hungry, herb, hus- 
band, house, honor, hour. 

73. The words union, eulogy, unit, and eive, begin with 
the consonant sound of y ; therefore we say, a union, a eulogy, 
a unit, etc. 

74. One begins with the consonant sound of w [wiin] ; 
therefore we say, such a one, a one-horse chaise, a one-sided 
view. 

Direction, — Require pupils to give the reason for the use of a or an 
in each of the following sentences ; then analyze them, calling a and an 
adjectives : 

1. An hour passed. 9. An old clock stopped. 

2. A dark cloud arose. 10. A little child cried. 

3. An honest man prospers. 11. An onion decayed. 

4. A useful clerk resigned. 12. A star appeared. 

5. An ugly dog barked. 13. An apple dropped. 

6. An owl hooted. 14. An old vessel sank. 

7. A gray owl hooted. 15. A prisoner escaped. 

8. A young child creeps. 16. An eagle screamed. 

Questions. — 1. In sentence 1, why is an used 1 2. In 4, why is a used f 
3. In 8, why is an used % 4. To which of the eight parts of speech do the, 
an, and a belong % 5. By what other name are they sometimes known ? 
6. Before what words is a used % 7. Before what words is an used ? 8. 
With what sound does useful begin % 9. Is it correct to say, " an united 
country"? 10. Is it correct to say, "a honest man"? 11. What is y in 
yellow, and what is iv in plow % 

* A vowel is a letter that represents an unobstructed sound ; i. e., a vowel can be 
sounded without bringing the parts of the mouth into contact to interrupt the stream 
of air from the lungs. A vowel can be used alone as a syllable [70]. (For the differ- 
ent sounds of each vowel, see a Speller or Reader.) 

A consonant is a letter that represents an obstructed sound ; i. e., a consonant 
cannot be sounded without bringing the parts of the mouth into contact. A con- 
sonant cannot be used alone as a syllable. 

The union of two vowels in one sound is called a diphthong ; as oi in voice. 
The union of three vowels in one syllable is called a triphthong ; as eau in beauty. 

3 



26 COMPOSITION-, 

Direction. — Supply a or an in each of the following unfinished sen- 
tences : 

1. young robin chirped. 5. honest merchant thrives. 

2. angry storm arose. 6. heavy beam fell. 

3. swallow twittered. 7. united country prospers. 

4. one-horse wagon passed. 8. humorous man lectured. 

Review Questions. — 1. Which are the two most important parts of 
speech, and why ? 2. What is a sentence ? 3. How many words are re- 
quired to form the simplest kind of a sentence ? 4. What part of speech 
may be the subject of a sentence ? 5. By what may the subject be modi- 
fied ? 6. What is an element ? 7. What kind of element is an adjective % 
8. Which are the principal elements in a sentence ? 9. What is a simple 
subject? 10. What is a modified subject! 11. May a subject have more 
than one modifier? 12. Before what words is a used? 13. What is the 
meaning of af 14. Why is w or y a consonant when it begins a word 
or syllable? 15. Why is w a vowel in view% 16. Which of the letters 
can be used alone as a svllable ? 



XXIII.— SYNTHESIS. * 

75. Direction. — Combine each of the following sets of statements into 
a single sentence : 

1. This girl is ambitious. 2. This boy is little. 

She wrote a composition. He found a knife. 

The composition was excellent. The knife was new. 

Model. — This ambitious girl wrote an excellent composition. 

3. That boy plays. 4. Mary sings. 

He plays games. She sings songs. 

He always plays fairly. She sings them delightfully. 

5. That dog is ugly. 6. This dog is faithful. 

He bit a little girl. He saved a child. 

He bit her severely. The child was drowning. 

7. That little child laughs. 8. The swan swims. 

She laughs heartily. It swims gracefully. 

She does so always. It does so always. 

* Synthesis is the putting together of words to form a sentence. It is the opposite 
of analysis. 



ADVERBS.— MODIFIED PREDICATE. 27 

Direction. — Ask the following questions, as directed in the last com- 
position lesson. After forming the topical outline, any of the minor points 
may be checked off, if it is thought best, to shorten the composition. 

APPLES. 

Questions. — 1. What are they? 2. How do they grow? 3. Do the 
trees blossom? 4. What is the color of the blossoms? 5. What is the 
appearance of an apple orchard in full bloom ? 6. Which appear first, the 
blossoms or the fruit? 7. Are all apples of the same color? 8. How 
many kinds of apples can you mention ? 9. Is the pulp soft or hard ; 
sweet, sour, or neutral? 10. How are the seeds arranged ? 11. For what 
are apples used ? 

Topical Outline. 

Heads: What they are. — How they grow. — When they ripen. 
Shape. — Size. — Color. — Skin. — Pulp. — Seeds. — Use. 

Shape : Somewhat round. 

Color : Red, yellow, green, mixed, striped. 

Skin : Thin, tough, tender. 

Pulp : Mellow, when ripe ; juicy, dry, sweet, sour, neutral. 

Seeds : Surround the core ; inclosed in cells. 

Use : Food, cooked or raw. Cider, vinegar. 



XXIV.— MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

1. Good boys study. 3. These vines grow. 

2. Little birds sing. 4. Weary people sleep. 

76. In sentence 1, all that is stated of " Good boys " is the fact that 
they study ; in 2, all that is stated of " Little birds " is that they sing ; 
in 3, all that is stated of " These vines " is that they grow. But we may 
wish to state something more than these simple facts, and this may be done 
by using some word or words to modify the meaning of each verb ; as, 

1. Good boys study diligently. 4. Weary people sleep soundly. 

2. Little birds sing sweetly. 5. Weary people sometimes sleep 

3. These vines grow rapidly. soundly. 

77. Such words as diligently, siveetly, rapidly, soundly, 
and sometimes, used to modify the meaning of verbs, are called 



28 ADVERBS.— MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

adverbs because they are added to verbs [used with verbs] 
to modify their meaning. 

Questions. — 1. In sentence 5, above, what is the simple subject? 2. 
By what is it modified % 3. What is the simple predicate, or verb ? 4. By 
what is it modified % 

Explanation. — The adjective weary, in sentence 5, modifies the simple 
subject people ; therefore, " Weary people " is called the modified subject. 
The verb sleep does not make the whole assertion about " Weary people " ; 
the entire assertion is " sometimes sleep soundly." The verb sleep is modi- 
fied by the adverbs sometimes and soundly ; therefore, " sometimes sleep 
soundly " is often called the modified predicate. But it is, perhaps, better 
to call the modified subject the entire subject, and the modified predi- 
cate the entire predicate, because the word entire better conveys the 
idea of wholeness, and is at the same time smoother in sound. It is also 
better to call the verb in the predicate the predicate-verb. 

78. The verb in a sentence is the entire predicate when 
alone it makes a complete assertion about the subject ; as, 
" Fishes swim." But when other words are used with the verb 
to make the whole assertion, the verb is the principal word in 
the predicate, and is called the predicate-verb; "The full 
moon sometimes shines brightly" 

Direction. — Select the entire subject and the entire predicate in each 
of the five preceding sentences ; also, the simple subject and the predicate- 
verb, mentioning the modifiers of each. Fill out the following unfinished 
sentences by inserting subjects, predicate-verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in 
the blank spaces, and mention the part of speech of each word inserted : 

1. fire brightly. 4. Careful write . 

2. boys laughed . 5. beasts ravenously. 

3. Little birds sing . 6. The stars shine . 

Questions. — 1. What does an adverb modify? 2. Is an adverb a prin- 
cipal or a dependent element! 3. Which are the principal elements in the 
sentence, " These vines grow rapidly " ? 4. Which are the dependent ele- 
ments % 5. What is the entire predicate in this sentence % 6. The entire 
subject % 7. What part of speech is a dependent element when used with 
a subject % 8. When used with a predicate- verb % 9. When is a predicate- 
verb the entire predicate 1 10. How does the verb rank in the predicate 
when other words are used with it to make the whole assertion % 



ADVERBS.— ANALYSIS. 29 

XXV.— ADVERBS.-ANALYSIS. 

Direction. — Mention the entire predicate in each of the following sen- 
tences, and tell what each predicate- verb is modified by : 

1. Some birds fly swiftly, 

2. The fishermen landed here. 

3. The pleasure-party landed yonder. 

4. Some flowers always bloom early. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, the adverb swiftly is used to show how 
"Some birds fly." In 2, the adverb here is used to show where "The 
fishermen landed." In 4, the adverbs always and early are used to show 
when " Some flowers bloom." 

79. The three special uses of the adverbs in these four sen- 
tences are to show how, tvhere, and when actions are performed ; 
but their general use is to modify. 

Questions. — 1. What does the adverb show in each of these four sen- 
tences ? 2. What part of speech does each modify ? 3. What three differ- 
ent uses do these adverbs have % 4. What do adjectives modify % 5. What 
do they tell about nouns % 6. Can more than one adverb modify the same 
verb ? 7. What is meant by the entire subject % 8. Entire predicate % 9. 
What is the subject of a sentence? 10. What is the predicate of a sen- 
tence ? 11. When is the predicate- verb the whole predicate % 12. What is 
a noun % 13. What is a verb 1 

Model for Analysis. 
1. Industrious people generally rise early. 

80. This is a declarative sentence. The entire subject is " Industrious 
people " ; the entire predicate is " generally rise early." The simple sub- 
ject people is modified by the adjective industrious; the predicate-verb 
rise is modified by the adverbs generally and early. 

Sentences for Analysis. 

(For models for written analysis, see 120.) 

1. The weary wanderers finally returned. 

2. A snail moves slowly. 

3. An old horse generally trots slowly. 

4. Small children often cry violently. 



30 ANALYSIS. 

5. The great noisy crowd often shouted lustily. 

6. The strong west wind changed suddenly. 

7. The pleasant holidays soon passed away. 

8. The full moon sometimes shines brightly. 

9. Those young ladies skate gracefully. 

10. The white, fleecy clouds floated rapidly away. 

Direction. — State the particular use of each adjective and adverb in the 
preceding sentences. 

81. An adverb is sometimes placed before and sometimes after the 
verb that it modifies, as in sentences 1 and 2 above. When two adverbs 
are used to modify the same verb, as in 3, 4, 5, etc., one of them should 
usually be placed before the verb and the other after it in such a way as to 
make the best sense. It would sound awkward to say, " An old horse trots 
generally slowly" or even " slowly trots generally" Sometimes (not often, 
however,) the sense is better expressed when two adverbs are written 
together, as " rapidly away " in sentence 10. 

82. Office, or Relation. — In the sentence, " Good boys study 
diligently," the noun boys is the simple subject ; this is its 
office, or relation, in the sentence. The word good is used to 
modify boys ; good, therefore, performs an adjective office. The 
word study performs the office of predicate-verb in the sen- 
tence. The word diligently modifies the verb study ; therefore 
it performs an adverbial office. 

83. Definition. — The office or relation of a word is its use 
in a sentence. 



XXVI.-SECONDARY MODIFIER. 

1. That beautiful swan swims gracefully. 

2. That exceedingly beautiful swan swims very gracefully. 

Explanation. — In sentence 2, the word exceedingly modifies the adjec- 
tive beautiful by intensifying its meaning; and the word very modifies 
the adverb gracefully in the same way. 

84. A word used to modify an adjective or an adverb is an 
adverb. 



ADVERBS. 31 

85. Definition. — An adverb, when it modifies a verb [princi- 
pal element], is called a primary modifier. 

86. Definition. — An adverb, when it modifies an adjective 
or an adverb [dependent element], is called a secondary 
modifier. 

87. Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modify the 
meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

88. Some words are used only as adverbs ; as, often, soon, away, some- 
times. 

89. Some words are sometimes adverbs and sometimes adjectives ; as, 
fast, late, early. I have a fast horse. This horse travels fast. 

90. Many adjectives become adverbs by adding ly ; as, sweet, sweetly ; 
slow, slowly ; violent, violently. 

91. Some nouns by adding ly become adjectives; as, man, manly; 
friend, friendly. Such adjectives as these must not be mistaken for 
adverbs. The use of a word determines its part of speech. Not is called 
a negative adverb because it expresses a negation, or denial. 

Model for Analysis. 
1. That exceedingly beautiful swan swims very gracefully. 

92. This is a declarative sentence. The entire subject is u That ex- 
ceedingly beautiful swan " ; the entire predicate is " swims very grace- 
fully." The simple subject swan is modified by the adjective beautiful, 
and beautiful, itself, is modified by the adverb exceedingly. The predi- 
cate-verb sivims is modified by the adverb gracefidly, and gracefully, itself, 
is modified by the adverb very. 

Direction, — Before using the following sentences for analysis, dictate 
them for writing, omitting the secondary modifiers ; then, assigning those 
modifiers for. the several sentences, re- write, inserting them where they 
belong. 

. Sentences for Analysis. 

1. The fire burns very brightly. 

2. That dreadfully tedious journey finally ended. 

3. That inconsiderate man acted too hastily. 

4. The extremely hot weather finally passed away. 

5. A terrible accident happened quite recently. 

6. Those boys came back very soon. 



32 RELATED IDEAS. 

XXVII.— RELATED IDEAS. 

93. Definition. — A sentence is a combination of words so 
arranged as to make complete sense. 

But words are not strung together at random to express a thought. 
Only ideas that are related to each other can be put together, and words 
must be properly arranged to express these ideas. 

Direction. — Arrange the words in the first eight of the following sen- 
tences so that they will make complete sense, and, in the ninth and tenth, 
use subjects that will be properly related to the ideas expressed by the 
verbs : 

1. Blow the severely often winds cold. 

2. Quickly some always move people. 

3. Often suddenly die men intemperate. 

4. The away fleecy floated white rapidly clouds. 

5. People quietly seldom nervous sit. 

6. Ugly barked large a furiously dog. 

7. The quickly boy naughty ran little away. 

8. Rapidly little flew the away bird beautiful. 

9. The mud smiled pleasantly. 
10. The dog laughed heartily. 

Review Questions.— 1. What is an adverb ? 2. What kind of element 
is an adverb? 3. What three parts of speech may an adverb modify? 
4. What is the modified subject ? 5. What is a predicate-verb ? 6. What 
is the meaning of the term predicate ? 7. When is the verb the whole or 
entire predicate in a sentence ? 8. How should adverbs generally be placed 
when two of them modify the same verb in a sentence ? 9. What position 
does a single adverb occupy in a sentence? 10. What is analysis in gram- 
mar? 11. What is the subject of a sentence? 12. What is the predicate? 
13. What is a primary modifier ? 14. What is a secondary modifier ? 15. 
What is a sentence ? 16. Why are the eight collections of words standing 
first on this page not sentences? 17. What kind of ideas can be put 
together to form sentences ? 18. Why do 9 and 10 not make sense ? 19. 
What words are used only as adverbs% 20. What words are sometimes 
adjectives and sometimes adverbs ? 21. Mention five adjectives that may 
be changed to adverbs by adding ly. 22. Mention five nouns that may 
be changed to adjectives by adding ly. 23. How do we determine to what 
part of speech any word in a sentence belongs ? 24. What is meant by the 
office of a word in a sentence ? 



COMPOSITION. 33 

XXVIII.— COMPOSITION LESSON. 

94. Direction, — The teacher may call upon a pupil to read the first of 
the following paragraphs, cautioning all to observe closely the punctuation, 
and to see if the reader makes the proper pauses where the points occur. 
Then request other pupils to read the second paragraph (or the teacher 
may do so), and to make the proper period-pauses as nearly as they may 
be able to make them. 

After judicious practice of this kind, require all pupils to copy the 
other paragraphs, and place periods or interrogation points where they 
should occur. Most pupils will soon acquire skill in breaking up solid 
paragraphs into sentences, if properly drilled in this way or in any other 
that may suggest itself to the judicious and inventive teacher. 

1. Flowers have habits, or ways of acting, just as people have. For 
example, all flowers naturally turn toward the light, as if they loved it. 
This can be seen by watching plants that are standing near a window. If 
the pots are allowed always to stand in the same position, the flowers will 
all be bent toward the light. By turning the pots around a little every day 
while the blossoms are opening, the flowers can be made to look in differ- 
ent directions. 

2. The splendid flower, called the night-blooming cereus, opens only 
once it lets its beauty be seen but for a few hours, and then it fades and 
dies it is a very rare flower, and few people ever have an opportunity of 
seeing it those who have seen it watch for its opening with great eagerness 
this flower generally opens very late in the evening and is closed again in 
a few hours. 

3. Some people do not observe the habits of flowers how many people 
know that the blossom of the dandelion closes at night and opens again 
in the morning the gaudy tulip has the same habit as the dandelion most 
flowers, however, never close their petals after they have once blossomed. 
The chrysanthemum blooms late in autumn there are many new and 
beautiful varieties of this flower, which has now become very popular at 
the yearly exhibition, the chrysanthemum can be seen in large numbers 
and in great variety the study of flowers is very interesting. 

Direction. — For another lesson, copy the first paragraph on the black- 
board in solid form, omitting periods and capitals only, and require pupils 
to copy and supply all omissions. Select other exercises of the same kind 
from the reading-lessons. Do not be afraid of too much practice of this 
kind. 



34: CONJUNCTIONS.— COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

XXIX.-CONJUNCTIONS.— SIMPLE AND COMPOUND 

SENTENCES. 

1. The parrot whistled. 

2. The swallow twittered. 

3. The parrot whistled and the swallow twittered. 

4. Some insects fly. 

5. The flea hops. 

6. Some insects fly, but the flea hops. 

Questions. — Sentence 1 is a single statement. Is sentence 2 a single 
statement ? Are 4, 5, and 6 single statements 1 How many of these six 
sentences are single statements ? 

95. Definition. — A simple sentence is a single statement, 
and contains but one subject and one predicate. 

Explanation. — Each of the sentences 3 and 6 contains two simple state- 
ments. The two statements in 3 are joined by the word and, and those 
in 6 by but. 

96. Such sentences as 3 and 6 are called compound sen- 
tences, and the words and . and but are called conjunc- 
tions. 

97. Definition. — A compound sentence is one that consists 
of two or more simple sentences connected together. 

98. Each separate statement in a compound sentence is 
called a member. 

Explanation. — In sentence 6, "Some insects fly" is the first member 
and " the flea hops " is the second member. The conjunction but is the 
connecting word. 

99. Definition. — A word used to join sentences together is 
called a conjunction. 

The conjunctions in most common use are and, but, or, and nor. 

Questions. — 1. How many single statements in 6 1 2. What word con- 
nects the statements ? 3. What part of speech is but ? 4. What kind of 
sentence is 2, and why ? 5. Is 3, and why ? 6. What is the second mem- 
ber in 3 ? 7. The first member ? 8. The connective ? 9. What is a simple 
sentence? 10. What is a compound sentence? 11. A member? 12. A 
conjunction ? 



AXAZYSIS. 35 

XXX.— ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

100. Only sentences that contain related thoughts can be 
connected to form a compound sentence. The following sen- 
tences, therefore, are not properly constructed : 

1. The gentle wind blew softly, and some men cheat. 

2. Some men deal fairly, and the boat sailed slowly. 

3. The moon shone brightly, but other flowers bloom late. 

4. Some flowers bloom early, and the sleigh-bells rang merrily. 

5. Some men build houses, and the sun again shone brightly. 

6. The rain finally ceased, and other men build ships. 

Questions. — 1. Why should the second member of sentence 1 be con- 
nected with the first member of sentence 2 ? 2. How may these sentences 
be arranged so as to make good sense ? 3. Arrange them properly. 

Models for Analysis. 
1. Some small birds sing very sweetly. 

101. This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is 
" Some small birds," and the entire predicate is " sing very sweetly." The 
simple subject birds is modified by the adjectives some and small. The 
predicate-verb sing is modified by the adverb sweetly, and sweetly itself 
is modified by the adverb very. 

2. The cold wind blew furiously, and the waves dashed high. 

This is a compound declarative sentence consisting of two members 
connected by the conjunction and. In the first member, " The cold wind 
blew furiously," the simple subject wind is modified by the adjectives the 
and cold ; the predicate-verb blew is modified by the adverb furiously. In 
the second member, ''the waves dashed high," the simple subject waves is 
modified by the adjective the: the predicate-verb dashed is modified by 
the adverb high. 

Remark. — This abbreviated model saves time, and is therefore better at 
this stage of the pupil's progress. The full analysis may be required, how- 
ever, at the teacher's discretion. 

102. Comma Rule. — The members of a compound sentence 
are usually separated by a comma when the second statement 
follows as a consequence jof the condition expressed in the first. 



36 COMPOSITION. 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. The policeman ran rapidly, but the thief finally escaped. 

2. The gentle wind blew softly, and the boat sailed slowly along. 

3. The sun shone brightly, and the clouds floated slowly away. 

4. The stars twinkle, but the planets shine steadily. 

5. Men live, and men die, but God lives forever. 

Explanation. — Sentence 5 is a compound sentence consisting of three 
members. The first and second members are connected by the conjunction 
and ; the second and third members, by the conjunction but. 

Direction. — Dictate these five sentences for a lesson in punctuation; 
also, write three compound sentences containing only the elements already 
learned. 

XXXI. -SYNTHESIS. 

103. Direction. — Combine the following statements as in the preceding 
composition lesson : 

1. I see a man. 2. We gathered some berries. 

He is on a bridge. They were in a field. 

The bridge is over a brook. The field was across the river. 

Model. — We gathered some berries in the field across the 
river. 

3. Birds are found in South America. 4. The boys ran. 

There are many kinds of them. They ran around the corner. 

They are beautiful. They ran rapidly. 

5. We found a nest. 6. Mary received a prize. 

It was a robin's nest. It was for good scholarship. 

It was full of eggs. She received it yesterday. 

It was in an apple-tree. It was beautiful. 

Direction. — For the first lesson in the following exercise, examine the 
questions with the class, giving all necessary information; compare the 
questions with the topical outline, and this with the written composition 
on the next page ; then write the questions on the blackboard, and require 
pupils, with books closed, to form a topical outline. For a second lesson, 
write the questions on the blackboard, and require pupils to form an out- 
line on their slates ; then to examine the exercise, and, from their own 
outline, or from that in the book, to write a composition. 



Cucumbers. 



COMPOSITION. 37 

CUCUMBERS. 

Questions. — 1. What are cucumbers ? 2. How do they grow % 3. What 
is their general appearance f 4. What are the names of the parts ? 5. Are 
there different kinds? 6. For what are they used? 7. W^hich appears 
first, the blossom or the cucumber 1 

Topical Outline. 

What they are. 
How they grow. 
When blossoms appear. 

r Size : two to ten inches long. 
Appearance, -j Shape : round like a banana. 

I Color : green, cream ; orange when ripe. 

r Skin : rough, spines. 
Parts. -{ Pulp : crisp near the skin ; soft in center. 

I Seeds : form part of pulpy center. 
Use : Food, green and raw, as a salad. 



XXXH.— COMPOSITION LESSON. 

CUCUMBERS. 

104. Cucumbers are a kind of vegetable or fruit that grows in the 
garden, on running vines, like the melon. The little cucumber first ap- 
pears, bearing on its end a little bud, which soon bursts into a blossom. 
Blossoms without cucumbers also appear, but these wither and drop off 
soon after their pollen has fertilized the other flowers. This peculiarity is 
also true of melons, pumpkins, and squashes. The blossoms of the differ- 
ent kinds of fruit that grow on trees, appear before the fruit. 

Cucumbers vary in size from two inches to ten, five being about the 
average length of most kinds. They are, in form, something like the 
banana. They are generally of a dark green color, but some are nearly 
the color of cream. When fully ripe, they are of a dark orange color, and 
are then unfit for food. 

The skin is rough, little elevations ending in sharp, black spines, 
being scattered quite thickly over the surface, except at the stem end. 
The pulp, in the center, is soft and full of seeds. 

The only part of the cucumber fit to be eaten is the seedy pulp, the 
hard crisp part near the skin being more or less indigestible. 



88 TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

WATERMELONS. 

Questions. — 1. When and where do they grow? 2. From what place is 
the early supply derived? 3. What different shapes have you noticed? 
4. Is the rind of all melons of the same color ? 5. Are the pulp and seeds 
of the same color in all 1 6. In what part of the pulp do the seeds grow ? 
7. Do the seeds of the nutmeg melon occupy a similar position? Are 
melons eaten raw or cooked ? What is the taste, or flavor ? 

Topical Outline. 

Heads : Where produced. — Shape. — Rind. — Pulp. — Seeds. 

Produced : Temperate climates, on vines. 

Shape : Oval, short or longer, round. 

Rind : Dark green, light green, striped, thick or thin. 

Pulp : Pale red, deep red, yellow, soft, sweet, very juicy. 

Seeds : Black, brown, white, tipped with black, surround the core. 



XXXIII.-TRANSITIVE VERBS.-OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

Remark. — We have learned that there must be a subject and a verb in 
every simple sentence ; that the verb alone sometimes expresses all we wish 
to say about the subject ; that adverbs are sometimes used with the verb 
to express the whole thought about the subject. We shall now learn that 
it often becomes necessary to use a noun with the predicate-verb to make 
the sense complete. 

105. When we say, " W dives howl," the sense is complete — 
no question is suggested by the sentence. But when we say — 

1. Wolves catch . 

2. Honest men dislike — — . 

the sense is plainly incomplete in each case, and the questions 
arise, " catch what ? " " dislike what or whom ? " If we add a 
noun to each to fill out or complete the meaning of the verb, 
the sentences will stand thus : 

1. Wolves catch lambs. 

2. Honest men dislike rogues. 

Explanation. — The noun lambs completes the meaning of the predi- 
cate-verb catch by representing the receiver of the action. 



VERBS.— TRANSITIVE.— INTRANSITIVE. 39 

106. A verb that requires the addition of a noun to repre- 
sent the receiver of an action is called a transitive verb, and 
the added noun is called the object of the verb. The added 
noun is also called the object complement, because whatever 
completes may be called a complement. 

The word transitive [Lat. trans-it-US'] means passing over; and in the 
sentence, " Wolves catch lambs," the action expressed by the verb catch 
passes over from the subject wolves to the object lambs. The object lambs 
receives the action ; that is, the object is acted upon. 

In the sentences " Wolves howl " and " Children sleep," the verbs 
howl and sleep do not require the addition of an object to complete the 
sense. Such verbs are called intransitive verbs, [^-transitive = not 
transitive.] Sleep in this sentence denotes state or condition. 

Questions. — 1. What is a transitive verb? 2. An intransitive verb? 3. 
What is an object complements 4. Why is it so called? 5. Does sleep 
denote action^. 

XXXIV,— TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

107. Definition. — A transitive* verb is one that expresses 
an act done by one person or thing to another. 

108. Definition. — An intransitive verb is one that denotes 
state or condition, or expresses an action not requiring an 
object to complete its meaning. 

109. When the action expressed by a verb is confined to the subject, 
the verb is intransitive. 

110. A transitive verb expresses an action that goes beyond the sub- 
ject [the actor], and affects some other person or thing called the object ; 
that is, the use of a transitive verb brings into the sentence the names of 
two different persons or things — one, the name of the actor, and the other, 
the name of the recipient of the action. 

111. Definition.— The object complement of a verb is 
that part of the predicate of a sentence which represents the 
receiver of the action. 

* Transitive verbs are sometimes called incomplete verbs. Those intransitive 
verbs that express action, are sometimes called complete verbs [see 106 and 108]. 



40 ' OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

Direction. — In the following sentences, determine which contain transi- 
tive verbs, which intransitive, and tell why. Mention the object comple- 
ment in each sentence where one occurs. Change into interrogative sen- 
tences by using do, did, does, have, or has, for the introductory word 
of each. 

1. Bees fly rapidly. 9. California produces gold. 

2. Bees make honey. 10. That girl skates gracefully. 

3. Wolves howl fearfully. 11. Some roses bloom early. 

4. Wolves eat lambs. 12. The farmer carted the hay. 

5. The hawk flew slowly. 13. Those men work hard. 

6. The hawk caught a fish. 14. This tree bears sweet apples. 

7. Brutus stabbed Caesar. 15. The rain fell abundantly. 

8. The hunter shot a large 16. The rain moistened the 

deer. ground. 

Questions. — 1. What is the meaning of the word transitive ? 2. What is 
a transitive verb ? 3. What is the relation of the object to the action ? 4. 
What is the relation of the subject to the action ? 5. What is the subject 
sometimes called? 6. What is an intransitive verb? 7. What kind of 
verb requires the use of an object complement? 



XXXV.-OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

Direction. — Fill out the following sentences by adding object comple- 
ments to the transitive verbs, and adverbs to the intransitive verbs : 

1. Horses draw . 8. William saw . 

2. Some merchants lose . 9. The boy listened . 

3. Water flows . 10. Some trees bear . 

4. Farmers raise . 11. John found . 

5. The lion roared . 12. The thieves fled . 

6. Carpenters build . 13. The farmer mowed . 

7. Some people act . 14. The visitors arrived . 

Direction. — Re-write these sentences, and add to what is already written 
the following adverbs where they will fit best : often, sometimes, quickly. 
Also use the following adjectives with the object complements: heavy, 
good, the, wild, fine, large, excellent. 

112. The principal parts of a sentence are the subject 
and the predicate. The principal ivord in the predicate is 
the predicate-verb^ and the object ranks next in importance. 



ANALYSIS. 41 

The object complement* is one of the principal parts of the 
predicate, but not a principal part of the sentence as a whole. 
In a sentence containing a transitive verb, the predicate-verb 
and its complement, with all their modifiers, form the entire 
predicate. 

Direction. — Mention the principal parts of the following sentences in 
the order here given : 1. Entire subject. 2. Entire predicate. 3. Predi- 
cate-verb. 4. Object complement. 

1. A rich gentleman built a beautiful house. 

2. This industrious boy received a suitable reward. 

3. The warm sun gradually dissolved the frozen snow. 

4. The hurricane destroyed a large barn. 

5. The heavy wind blew the vessel along. 

6. The gentle wind blew steadily. 

7. The little boy quickly threw the flowers away. 

8. Many wild beasts inhabit Africa. 

9. Thrifty vines covered the little porch. 
10, Sweet odors filled the balmy air. 



XXXVI.— ANALYSIS. 

Direction. — Select the simple subject, predicate-verb, and object comple- 
ment in the following sentences ; then analyze according to the following : 

Model for Analysis. 
1. An old sailor soon mended the ragged sail. 

113. This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is "An 
old sailor." The entire predicate is i; soon mended the ragged sail."' The 
simple subject sailor is modified by the adjectives an and old. The predi- 
cate-verb mended is modified by the adverb soon and completed by the 
object complement sail, which is modified by the adjectives the and 
ragged. 

* The object complement is really a dependent element, as it limits [confines] the 
action expressed by the verb to itself. Taking this view of it. some authors say that 
in the sentence. "The firemen quickly brought the ladders." the predicate-verb 
brought is modified by the adverb quickly, and is limited by the object ladders. [In 
complex sentences the object clause is considered a dependent element.] 
4 



42 SAME VERB TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE. 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. Most children like melons. 

2. The early bird catches the worm. 

3. Deep rivers flow silently. 

4. That severe storm injured the crops. 

5. Some trees bear excellent fruit. 

6. The golden sunset lighted the eastern hills. 

7. The Romans destroyed Jerusalem. 

8. Mary bought a ripe, juicy peach. 

9. Galileo invented the telescope. 

10. The loose windows rattled constantly. 

11. The gentle rain refreshes the thirsty flowers. 

12. Washington defeated Cornwallis. 

13. The dusky blacksmith shod the restive horse. 

14. The happy boys started quite early. 

15. The fisherman caught an extremely fine trout. 

16. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

17. Some men build houses, and other men build ships. 

18. The men carried guns, but the boys carried brooms. 

19. Some very good artists occasionally paint poor pictures. 
Direction. — Mention the singular and the plural nouns in these sen- 
tences. In 2, 6, and 15, state what relation each word holds in the sen- 
tence in which it occurs [82]. 

XXXVII.-SAME VERB TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE. 

114. The same word may be a transitive verb in one sen- 
tence and an intransitive verb in another ; as, 

1. Henry studies intelligently [in general]. 

2. Henry studies his difficult lessons very thoroughly. 

Explanation. — The verb studies in the first sentence expresses the ac- 
tion in a general way ; in the second sentence, studies expresses an action 
limited to something particular — " lessons." 

115. When a verb, generally transitive, is used in an intran- 
sitive sense, it should be considered intransitive in parsing. 

Direction. — Mention the transitive, and also the intransitive, use of each 
verb in the following sentences : 



OBJECTS OF KINDRED MEANING. 43 

1. Mary writes carefully. 4. That child speaks correctly. 

2. Henry writes excellent com- 5. Some people eat too rapidly. 

positions. 6. Lions eat raw flesh. 

3. That man speaks four Ian- 7. That lady reads well. 

guages. 8. Mary reads poetry well. 



XXXVm.— OBJECTS OF KINDRED MEANING. 

116. Some verbs, generally intransitive, may take an object 
complement expressing an idea similar to that expressed by the 
verb itself. Such objects are called objects of kindred mean- 
ing, some of which are found in the following sentences : 

1. This man lives a happy life. 

2. That man died a happy death. 

3. The boy ran a race. 

4. That wicked boy swore a horrible oath. 

5. The visitors looked a last look. 

6. The lady sang a beautiful song. 

Question. — What is meant by an object of kindred meaning 1 

Interrogative and Imperative Sentences, 

117. In an interrogative sentence, the subject stands after 
the verb, or after one of its parts [18, 301]. 

1. Has this village a bank! 

2. Will James return soon? 

118. In an imperative sentence, the subject is seldom ex- 
pressed. 

1. ( ) Shut the door. 

2. (You) shut the door. 

Direction. — Determine which of the following sentences is declarative, 
interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. Give reasons for punctuation ; 
mention the subject in each ; analyze each : 

1. Have animals reason? 5. How dreadfully the thunder rolls! 

2. Bring the long oars. 6. The heavy engine drew a long train. 

3. Has John any bait? 7. The farmer raised the grain, but the 

4. Take the box away. speculator made the money. 



44 COMPOSITION. 

XXXIX.— SYNTHESIS. 

119. Direction. — Combine the statements in the following sets of sen- 
tences by using as connectives between each couplet and, or, nor, if, but, 
because, or therefore, making two combinations for each when it is pos- 
sible. To make a second combination, the second sentence may be taken 
first. Any word may be changed, or may be entirely omitted, to avoid 
repetition; as, 

1. George was late at school. 

2. George did not start in time. 

Combination 1. — George was late at school because he did 
not start in time. 

Combination 2. — George did not start in time, therefore he 
was late at school. 

1. Industry leads to wealth. 
Laziness leads to poverty. 

2. The garden is well cultivated. 

The garden will produce flowers in abundance. 

3. Will Henry do the errand? 

Will Charles do it instead of Henry? 

4. Mary used her books shamefully. 
Susan preserved her books with care. 

5. William will arrive in time. 
Charles will be here late. 

6. The price of wheat is low. 

There was a plentiful crop last year. 

7. Mary is as tall as her sister. 
She is not so tall as her brother. 

8. Ella skates gracefully. 
Mary does not skate so well. 

9. Eight cents were divided between the two brothers. 
Twelve cents were divided among the three sisters. 

Note. — Notice that between is used in speaking of two persons, and 
among, in speaking of three or more than three. 

Direction. — Fill the blanks by inserting between or among in the fol- 
lowing : 



ANALYSIS. 45 

1. There are six books on the table ; you will find yours them. 

2. Take your seat those boys. 

3. He divided the apples his four companions. 

Questions. — 1. What is the difference in meaning when I say, " You will 
find the peach on the shelf between the pears," and " You will find the 
peach among the pears "f 2. When should between be used? 2. When 
should among be used ? 



XL.-MODELS FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 

120. A very old sailor soon mended the ragged sail. 



Class 


Simple declarative. 


Entire subject 


A very old sailor. 


Entire predicate 


Soon mended the ragged sail. 


Simple subject 


Sailor, modified by the adjectives the and old ; 




and old is modified by the adverb very. 


Predicate- verb 


Mended, modified by the adverb soon. 


Object 


Sail, modified by the adjectives the and ragged. 





2. God made the country and man made the town. 

Class Compound declarative. 

First member God made the country. 

Second member Man made the town. 

Connective And. 

Simp, sub., first mem God, unmodified. 

Predicate-verb Made, unmodified. 

Object Country, modified by the adjective the. 

Simp, sub., second mem. . Man, unmodified. 

Predicate- verb Made, unmodified. 

Object Town, modified by the adjective the. 

Direction. — Use a few of the sentences on the preceding pages, for writ- 
ten analysis, both as a home lesson and as a school exercise. Break up the 
following paragraph into sentences, using periods and exclamation points : 

As we roam about the fields and woods, it is pleasant to see, here and 
there, a flower flowers are like familiar friends whom we love to meet a 
little girl finding a wild violet exclaimed How glad I am to see you again 
it is a long time since I saw you, and you look as pretty as ever how much 
we should miss flowers if they did not come every year. 



40 DIAGRAMMING. 



XIX— DIAGRAMMING. 

121. There are various opinions as to the benefit to be derived from 
diagramming sentences. As a method of imparting instruction, it is of 
importance mainly as a means of calling the special attention of the 
learner to the work he must perform ; for, a knowledge of the structure 
of a sentence must precede the act of diagramming. By requiring an occa- 
sional use of this method of analysis, the teacher is enabled readily to dis- 
cover the special defects in the knowledge of each pupil, as it affords a con- 
venient form of work to be examined ; but the systems of diagramming in 
general use so distort the sentence as to prevent a rapid examination. 

While the system here presented may not be quite so readily applied to 
the most intricately involved sentences as other methods, yet it is more 
easily applied to simple sentences, and also to compound and complex sen- 
tences as far as any system is of special importance ; and besides, it affords 
a much more convenient form of work for examination. [See 777J. 

Directions. — Mark the subject word k 

Mark the predicate-verb 2. 

Mark the object complement o- c. 
Join modifying to principal elements by lines, as below. 
Join as one two or more adjectives or adverbs standing together and 
modifying the same word. 

Underline a conjunction connecting members, with one line ; connect- 
ing words, with two lines. 

Use paper wide enough to contain the whole sentence on one line. 

1 2_ 

1. Small children sometimes cry violently. 

~u zi~ ~^z: it ~r~ 

1 2 

2. The white fleecy clouds floated rapidly away. 

1 2 o. c. 

3. An old sailor soon mended the ragged sail. 

~ t~ ~r t__zt~ r~ ~r 



| JJ_ _2_ o. c. 

4. Bravely the little girl faced the angry storm. 



JL JL 9iji JL _JL_ o.c. 

Some men build houses, and other men build ships. 



PROPER NOUNS. 47 

XLII.— PROPER NOUNS. 

122. All things, animate and inanimate, may be separated 
into groups or classes. 

Men, women, hoys, girls, etc., are names of different classes of persons. 
Man, hoy, or girl is the name of a single one of a class. Dogs, horses, 
elephants, etc., are names of different classes of animals. Rohins, thrushes, 
orioles, etc., are names of different classes of birds. Cities, streets, parks, 
islands, etc., are names of different classes of places. Trees, rocks, flowers, 
days, etc., are names of different classes of things. 

Direction. — Examine the two following sentences, and notice the names 
used for the subject and the object in sentence 1, and corresponding names 
in sentence 2 : 

1. A man discovered a country. 

2. Columbus discovered America. 

Questions. — 1. Does man show what particular person is meant? 2. 
Does country show what particular part of the earth is meant 1 3. What 
does Columbus show? 4. America 6 * 

123. Man is a name that belongs to any one of a whole 
class. Man is a common noun ; common means belonging to 
many, or to all alike. But each man has a special name given 
to him for Ms oivn to distinguish him from others of the 
same class. The word proper means one's own ; Columbus is a 
proper noun. 

Direction. — Select the common nouns and the corresponding proper 
nouns, in each set of the following sentences : 

1. The dog bit a girl. 1. Last month passed rapidly. 

2. Carlo bit Mary. 2. Last August passed rapidly. 

1. A boy visited a city. 1. A man wrote a book. 

2. John Smith visited Chicago. 2. Milton wrote "Paradise Lost." 

1. The tree died. 1. A man purchased an elephant. 

2. The oak died. 2. Barnum purchased Jumbo. 

3. The Charter Oak died. 3. A bee stung Henry. 

124. Proper nouns may be — 

1. The names of persons ; as, Lincoln, Grant, Bryant. 

2. Names of countries, islands, rivers, places, and objects of special 
note; as, America, the Bermudas, Gulf of Mexico, City Hall, Central Park. 



48 NOUNS.— COMMON AND PROPER 

XLm.— PROPER NOUNS.— CAPITAL LETTERS. 

125. A common noun is the name of a whole class : 

Girls, boys, books, trees. 
A common noun is the name of any one of a class : 
Girl, boy, book, tree. 

126. A proper noun is a special name given to a particular one 
of a class to distinguish it from others of the same kind ; as, Mary, George, 
Columbus, John Smith, "Paradise Lost," Monday, January, Good Friday, 

Note. — Such names as " John Smith " and " Paradise Lost " are called 
compound proper nouns. Some authors call them complex proper nouns. 

127. Definition. — A common noun is the name of a whole 
class of objects or things, or of any one of a class. 

128. Definition. — A proper noun is a special name given to 
a particular one of a class. 

129. A proper noun is often used as an adjective ; as, The 
Albany boat has arrived. Sometimes there is a change made 
in the ending; as, America protects American citizens. A 
proper noun, when used as an adjective, 'is called a proper 
adjective, and the capital letter is retained. 

130. Capital Letter Rule. — Every proper noun and every 
proper adjective must begin with a capital letter. 

131. Capital Letter Rule. — Every name of the Deity must 
begin with a capital letter; as, God, the Almighty, the Most 
High, the Supreme Being, Jehovah. 

Direction. — Write the following proper nouns in one column, and the 
common nouns in another : 

Boy, chair, william, city, brooklyn, street, broad way, table, dog, fido, 
book, girl, susan, mountains, alps, new york, liverpool, river, nile, animal, 
elephant, london, boston, bird, robin, tuesday, august. 

Questions. — 1. Is boy a class name ? 2. Is cousin 1 3. Is trees % 4. Is 
Susan % 5. Why is dog a common noun % 6. Why is a dog called Rover ? 
7. Why is one person called John, and another, James % 8. What is a 
proper noun % 9. A common noun % 10. What is a proper adjective ? 



ABBREVIATION. 49 

XLIV.— ABBREVIATION OF NOUNS. 

132. In writing proper nouns, Joseph is sometimes written 
Jos. ; Geo. is written for George \ Alf. for Alfred] N Y. for 
New York; Esq. for Esquire. 

This shortening of nouns is called abbreviation, and a period should 
be placed at the end of a word thus shortened, to mark the abbreviation. 
Common nouns are also thus abbreviated ; as, gram, for grammar. 

133. Punctuation Rule. — A period should be used to mark 
an abbreviation. 

134. Sometimes nouns are abbreviated by using one or more 
of the first letters and adding the last ; as, Wm. for William ; 
Jas. for James ; Chas. for Charles ; Eobt. for Eobert ; Pa. for 
Pennsylvania ; Ga. for Georgia ; Fla. for Florida ; la. for Iowa ; 
La. for Louisiana ; Me. for Maine ; Md. for Maryland ; Ky. for 
Kentucky ; reed, for received ; recpt. for receipt ; yrs. for years ; 
wk. for week ; St. for street or saint ; Dr. for doctor or debtor. 

135. Sometimes a selection of letters is made, and sometimes 
all but the first letter are cut off ; as, Mo. for Missouri ; mts. for 
mountains ; P. 0. for post-office ; U. 8. for United States ; G. 
B. Winthrop for George Benton Winthrop. No. for number, 
oz. for ounce, and bbl. for barrel are arbitrary abbreviations ; 
that is, they follow no rule. 

136. The following abbreviations are in general use in writing: 

for County or Company. 

" Doctor of Medicine. 

" Doctor of Divinity. 

" United States of America. 

" Member of Congress. 

" United States Navy. 

" Manuscript. 

" id est — that is. 

Direction. — Write as many sentences as may be deemed necessary con- 
taining properly abbreviated nouns that are names of the months and of 
the days of the week, and nouns used as commercial terms, etc. 



Mr. 


for Mister. 


Co. 


Mrs. 


" Mistress. 


M. D. 


Jr. 


" Junior. 


D. D. 


Rev. 


" Reverend. 


U. S. A. 


Gen. 


" General. 


M. C. 


Col. 


" Colonel. 


U. S. N. 


Com. 


" Commodore. 


MS. 


Ave. 


" Avenue. 


i. e. 



50 COMPOSITION. 

XL.V.— COMPOSITION LESSON. 

137. Direction. — Dictate the following sentences, and require pupils to 
be particular in the use of capital letters, and to give the reason for the 
correct use of each. Justify the use of abbreviation and quotation marks*: 

1. A tall young man shot a beautiful bird. 

2. A snake frightened John fearfully. 

3. Geo. Hollis found a new knife. 

4. The sun dried the green grass. 

5. That ugly dog bit Susan severely. 

6. The elephant ate some peanuts. 

7. Five little girls met Robert yesterday. 

8. John's teacher said, "Never be unemployed." 

9. Mary whipped Rover dreadfully. 

10. The teacher reproved Jos. Sanford. 

11. Will the steamer soon reach Albany! 

12. Some Americans visited Italy. 

13. The Portuguese discovered the Azores. 

14. England exports English manufactures. 

15. The girls exclaimed, "What a beautiful sunset!" 

16. Thackeray says, "A good woman is the loveliest 

flower that blooms under heaven." 

Direction. — After these sentences have been written, use the first seven 
as a lesson in analysis. 

Note. — In sentence 13, " Portuguese " is the name of one particular 
race of people, and "Azores" is the name of one particular group of 
islands ; they are therefore proper nouns. 

Review Questions. — 1. What is meant by the abbreviation of a noun 1 
2. What is used to mark an abbreviation ? 3. In what way are the nouns 
abbreviated in 132 % 4. How are they abbreviated in 134? 5. In 135 1 

Direction. — Copy the following original composition, correcting the 
spelling, and the wrong use of capital letters and of periods, etc., and give 
the reason for each correction : 

Their are a great many animals throughout the world of various sizes 
and colors the most powerful land animals ever known are the Elephant 
Rhinoserus. Lion and Tiger, belong, to torrid zone, the natives of the tem- 
perate and most useful to man. are the Horse. Ox. Sheep and goat. The 
largest marine animals as the Whale and Walrus, belong mostly to the 
Frigid Zone, their are a great many smaller animals not mentioned. 



ARRANGEMENT OF ADVERBS. 51 

XLVI.— ARRANGEMENT OF ADVERBS. 

138. Place adverbs where they will most clearly modify the 
word intended to be modified, having regard also to the sound. 
An adverb should seldom stand between a verb and its object. 

Direction. — Improve the following sentences by changing the position 
of the adverbs in italics : 

1. I understand your statement fully. 

2. Industrious people rapidly acquire wealth sometimes. 

3. The prisoner watched the judge's face anxiously. 

4. He makes such mistakes generally. 

5. That careless boy makes always mistakes. 

6. Beautiful leaves covered entirely the ground. 

7. A strong wind swept away the troublesome mosquitoes. 
Remark. — Away (as in 7) may stand between a verb and its object. 

139. An adverb sometimes introduces a sentence : 

1. Slowly the sun melted the frozen snow. 

2. Bravely the little lad faced the angry storm. 

COMPOSITION LESSON. 

Direction. — Fill out the following unfinished sentences by using the 
words here given — as many words in each as there are dashes : 

Always, make, cultivate, hasty, citizens, beautiful, farmers, some, 
obey, vegetables, bitter, other, gold, coal. 

1. Florists flowers. 

2. mines produce . 

3. mines produce . 

4. Many raise early . 

5. Good the laws. 

6. words often make enemies. 

Review Questions. — 1. What other name is sometimes given to transi- 
tive verbs? 2. What name is given to the noun used to complete the 
meaning of a transitive verb % 3. Which is the most important word in 
the predicate ? 4. Which is next in importance % 5. What position should 
an adverb seldom occupy in a sentence % 6. Where should an adverb be 
placed in a sentence % 7. Mention the different positions that an adverb 
may occupy. 



52 LETTER WRITING. 

XLVH.-XETTER WRITING. 

(Date or Heading.) 
Fabyan House, N. H., 
(Address.) July 2^ 1888. 

My dear Mother, (body of letter.) 

Father and I have had a very pleasant time 
since we left home. We arrived at the Fabyan House yester- 
day. The sce?iery along the route to this place was so delightful 
that we did not even think of being tired. 

This morning we had a ride up Mt. Washington on the 
mountain railway. The engine and cars are queer-looking 

like 

things, and they seem to craivl up instead of running A a com- 
mon train. 

The top of this mountain is all rocks piled on rocks, 
except just a little space where the Tip Top House stands. 
From the piazza one can see, on a clear day, most of Neiu 
Hampshire and even into Maine on one side, and into Vermont 
on the other ; and there are ever so many lakes scattered all 
over as far as one can see. 

I will write again after I have been to other places and 
have seen something more that will interest you. 

(Subscription.) 

Your affectionate son, 

William Herbert. 

Directions for Letter Writing. — A page of a written letter should have 
only two margins — one of an inch and a half at the top of the sheet, and 
the other three quarters of an inch at the left of the body of the letter. 

The address, also each paragraph, should begin on a line half an inch 
to the right of the letter-margin. 

A short letter of less than a page should have as much blank space 
above the heading as below the subscription. 

All numbers in a letter or in an ordinary composition should be 
expressed in writing, excepting those indicating the time of day [9 o'clock], 
or the day of the month and the year [June 10, 1887]. 

A comma should separate the parts of the date, or heading ; the address 



LETTER WRITING. 



53 



from the body of the letter ; the parts of the subscription ; also the parts 
of the superscription on the envelope. 

Questions. — 1. How many margins should there be on a page of a writ- 
ten letter ? 2. What comes first in writing a letter ? 3. Where should it 
be written ? 4. What comes second ? 5. Where should the address begin ? 
6. Where should a paragraph begin? 7. What comes third? 8. Where 
should the body of the letter begin ? 9. How many parts to the subscrip- 
tion? 10. How should they be placed? 11. How should the space be 
divided in a letter of less than a page? 12. Where should commas be 
used? 

Explanation. — At the end of the second line in the body of the letter 
there is placed a little mark ( - ) called a hyphen ; also at the end of the 
seventh line. 

140. Rule. — A hyphen is placed at the end of a line to 
connect a syllable of a word written partly on that line, with a 
syllable on the next. 

Explanation. — There is an omission of the word like in the seventh 
line, and a mark ( a ) called a caret is placed below the line under the space 
where the omission occurs. 

141. Rule. — In writing, when a word is omitted, a caret is 
used to denote the omission, and the omitted word is written 
between the lines above the mark. 



J. — 1. When should a hyphen be used ? 2. Where is the omit- 
ted word to be placed ? 3. Where is the hyphen placed ? 

Direction. — After making corrections a few times, teachers should 
simply indicate, by certain marks, the errors made in writing letters and 
ordinary compositions. Pupils should be required to re- write their com- 
positions, correcting the errors from the indications. 





(Superscription.) 




cJkt. 


G$eA*sn <f. 


^wyisfrfrrlj 


J£4c &%a.M'rLc€41, 


©£ 






C/^e^a 


yjMe.4,s£. 



54 PRONOUNS. 

XLVHI.— PRONOUNS. 

1. A little girl told the driver that the driver had dropped 
the driver's whip. 

2. A little girl told the driver that he had dropped his 
whip. 

Explanation. — Sentence 1 is an awkward expression, because the noun 
driver is repeated unpleasantly. In sentence 2, the words he and his are 
used instead of the noun driver, thus preventing disagreeable repetition. 

142. Such words as he and his, used instead of nouns, are called 
pronouns [pro = for ; pro-noun = /br-noun, or instead of a noun]. 

143. Definition. — A pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun. 

1. i" laughed heartily. 

2. You laughed also. 

3. We witnessed a laughable occurrence. 

4. The man tried, but the man failed. 

5. The man tried, but he failed. 

6. That little boy found a knife, but he soon lost it. 

7. The lady started, but she soon returned. 

8. The boys tried hard, and they finally succeeded. 

9. James picked some green apples, but he soon threw them away. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, the pronoun I is used instead of the name 
of the person speaking. In 2, you is used instead of the names of the per- 
sons spoken to. In 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, the pronouns he, she, it. they, and 
them are used instead of the names of the persons and things spoken of, to 
prevent repetition. 

144. The noun man (in 5) is called the antecedent of he, because 
man is the noun which goes before he, and for which he stands [cedent = 
going ; ante = before]. In sentences 1 and 2, / and you have no antece- 
dents, / simply representing the person speaking, and you representing 
the persons spoken to. 

145. Definition. — The noun for which a pronoun stands is 
called its antecedent. 

146. The pronouns 1, thou, he, she, and it stand for singular nouns ; 
we, you, they, and them, for plural nouns. 



CONTRACTED COMPOUND SENTENCES. 55 

Direction. — Select the pronoun in each of the nine preceding sentences, 
and tell whether it simply represents a noun or stands for an antecedent 
to prevent repetition. Analyze each sentence. Write three compound 
sentences, each containing a singular pronoun in the second member ; also 
three others, each containing a plural pronoun. 

Questions. — 1. What is a pronoun? 2. Why are pronouns used? 3. 
What is an antecedent? 4. What does the word antecedent mean? 5. 
Which of the pronouns in the preceding sentences are singular, and which 
are plural ? 6. Which pronouns stand for the person or persons speaking ? 
7. Which, for the persons spoken to % 8. Which, for the person or persons 
spoken of ? 



XLIX.-CONTRACTED COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

1. Eobins sing sweetly and thrushes sing sweetly. 

2. Eobins and thrushes sing sweetly [contracted]. 

147. Subjects connected. — In 1, the two predicates being 
alike, disagreeable repetition may be avoided by connecting the 
two subjects by and, and using only one of the predicates. 
Sentence 2 is a simple sentence with a compound subject. 

148. Predicates connected. — To avoid repetition of the sub- 
ject or of the object, predicates are often connected : 

1. The farmer watered the horse, and he fed the horse. 

2. The farmer watered the horse, and he fed the cow. 

3. The farmer watered and fed the horse [contracted]. 

4. The farmer watered the horse and fed the cow [contracted]. 

Explanation. — In the sentence, " Robins and thrushes sing sweetly," 
although there are two subjects, only a single statement is made ; there- 
fore it is only a simple sentence. But in the sentence, " The farmer 
watered and fed the horse," two statements are made ; therefore some call 
it a compound sentence, and supply the subject he in the second member, 
in analysis and parsing. Others call it a simple sentence with a compound 
predicate. The latter is preferable, unless the members are made long by 
the use of modifying words, phrases, and clauses. Sentence 2 (second set) 
is contracted by simply omitting the pronoun lie. 

149. Objects connected, — Object complements are also con- 



56 AXAZYSIS AXD DIAGRAMMIXG. 

nected to avoid repetition of the subject and verb, as in sentence 
2 of the following : 

1. The fisherman caught a trout and he caught a bass. 

2. The fisherman caught a trout and a bass [contracted]. 

3. The carpenter built a house and a barn. 

4. She and I played a duet yesterday. 

5. Those boys treated you and me meanly yesterday. 

6. Productive fields and shady groves dotted the valleys and hills. 
Explanation. — Sentence 2 is a simple sentence with a compound object. 

Sentence 6 is simple with a compound subject and a compound object. 

150. Two or more connected subjects make a compound subject. Two 
or more connected predicates make a compound predicate. Two or more 
connected objects make a compound object. 

Questions. — 1. What is the subject in sentence 3? 2. Is it simple or 
compound? 3. What is the subject in 4? Is it simple or compound? 
4. Why are sentences abbreviated ? 5. How is the first sentence in this 
lesson abbreviated f 6. What is a compound subject ? 7. What is a com- 
pound object 1 

Direction. — Expand each of 2, 3, 4, 5 into a compound sentence and 6 
into two compound sentences, using pronouns for subjects in the second 
members. Analyze each sentence. 

151. Adverbs and Adjectives connected. — To avoid repeti- 
tion, adverbs and adjectives are frequently connected : 

1. The blind man walked slowly, and he walked carefully. 

2. The merchant had a large business, and he had a prosperous 
business. 

3. The blind man walked slowly and carefully [contracted], 

4. That merchant had a" large and prosperous business [contracted]. 

152. The primary use of the conjunction is to connect sentences. But 
it is also used to connect words as parts of an abbreviated compound sen- 
tence. 

Model for Analysis. 
1. Two men and three boys slowly ascended the lofty mountain. 

153. This is a simple declarative sentence containing the compound 
subject, " Two men and three boys." The simple part men is modified by 

the adjective two. and the simple part boys is modified by the adjective 
three. [Analyze the predicate as before]. 



ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMMING. 57 

Model for Analysis. 

1. The careful farmer thoroughly prepares the soil and sows good 
seed. 

154. This is a simple declarative sentence with a compound predicate. 
The entire subject is " The careful farmer " ; the entire predicate is " thor- 
oughly prepares the soil and sows good seed.'' The simple subject farmer 
is modified by the adjectives the and careful. The predicate- verbs are 
prepares and sows, connected by the conjunction and. Prepares is modi- 
fied by the adverb thoroughly, and completed by its object complement 
soil, which is modified by the adjective the. Sows is completed by its 
object complement seed, which is modified by the adjective good. 

DIAGRAMS. 
1 2 o. c 2 o. c. 

1. The farmer sows the seed and gathers the crops. 

t ~r i_x = n_zr 

J_ JL 2 o. c. 

2. Two men and three boys ascended the lofty mountain. 

T T = TL_T "TI zr~ 

1 2 o. c. 2 o. c. o. c. 

3. The girls entered the garden and gathered fruits and flowers. 



1 _2_ £ ~[o. e. _ _£ ZL 

4. Mary copied the paragraph quickly and very neatly. 
~E i " * 

Note. — In 4, and has the lines drawn over it, to avoid a confusion of 
lines below. After sufficient practice, an article standing next to a noun 
need not be joined to it. 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 

2. Make friends and keep them. 

3. The fire consumed the old church and the new theatre. 

4. The lightning struck the barn and killed a valuable horse. 

Questions. — 1. When a sentence contains two or more connected sub- 
jects, what is it called? 2. What is it called when it contains two or more 
connected predicates ? 3. How does it happen that ivords are connected 
by conjunctions ? 
5 



58 



SYNTHESIS AND PUNCTUATION. 



L.— SYNTHESIS AND PUNCTUATION. 



155. Separate Statements. 

1. The lark sings sweetly. 

The nightingale sings sweetly. 

2. This boy studies diligently. 
He recites correctly. 

He improves rapidly. 

3. Glass is hard. 
It is brittle. 
It is smooth. 

It is transparent. 



Combined. 

1. The lark and the nightingale 

sing sweetly. 

2. This boy studies diligently, 

recites correctly, and im- 
proves rapidly. 

3. Glass is hard, brittle, smooth, 

and transparent, 
(a) The hard, brittle glass is 
smooth and transparent. 



Explanation. — In the first of the combined sentences, only two nouns 
are used in succession, and, being connected by the conjunction and, they 
do not require a comma to separate them. But three or more words of 
the same part of speech used in succession (as in 2 and in the first com- 
bination of 3) make a series of words, and they must be separated by com- 
mas when the connective between any two of them is omitted. Two adjec- 
tives without a connective, as hard and brittle in the second combination 
of 3, should also be separated by a comma ; but two adjectives having a 
connective, as " smooth and transparent" do not require a comma. 

Questions. — 1. Why is a comma used between studies and recites in 2 ? 
2. Why to separate the italicized words in 3 ? 3. Why to separate hard 
and brittle in {a)% 4. Why not to separate smooth and transparent % 5. 
What word is omitted between hard and brittle % 

Direction. — Combine each of the following sets of statements into a 
single sentence, making two combinations for each of 3 and 6 (the same 
as in 3 above), and punctuate properly : 



1. My father went to Niagara. 
My mother went to Niagara. 
My sister went also. 

2. Large apples covered the ground. 
Ripe apples covered the ground. 
Yellow apples covered the ground. 

3. The water was smooth. 
It was clear. 

It was cold. 
It was deep. 



4. This lady sings finely. 
She plays correctly. 
She fingers admirably. 

5. James caught a trout. 
He caught a bass. 

He caught a pickerel. 

6. The storm was short. 
The storm was sudden. 
It was severe. 

It was very destructive. 



COMPOUND WORDS. 59 

LI.— COMPOUND WORDS. 

156. We learned [140] that the hyphen is used to join a syllable of a 
word that is partly written on one line, with a syllable written on the next 
line. We shall now see that the hyphen has another use — that of joining 
two distinct words together (generally for the purpose of abbreviation), 
thus forming a compound word ; as, grass-plot [plot of grass] ; pin-cushion 
[cushion for pins]. 

157. The following words are compound: Ice-house, down-fall, life- 
blood, linsey-woolsey, commander-in-chief, iron-gray, tea-chest, two-thirds, 
twenty-six, key-hole, eye-tooth, father-in-law, touch-me-not. 

Direction. — Dictate a few of the preceding compound words to be used 
in sentences. 

158. Definition. — A compound word is one that is com- 
posed of two or more words connected by the hyphen. 

159. When a compound word is a noun, it is called a compound 
noun. When a compound word is an adjectiye, it is called a compound 
adjective. 

160. Some compounds haye become permanent; that is, they are writ- 
ten as one word without the hyphen ; as, schoolmate, backwoodsman, 
watchman, runaway. 

161. Compound proper nouns do not require the hyphen; as, New 
York, Charter Oak. 

Questions. — 1. What is a compound word? 2. How is a permanent 
compound word written 1 3. How are compound proper nouns written ? 
4. What two uses of the hyphen are mentioned in this lesson % 5. What is 
a compound sentence % 6. Compound subject ? 7. What are the elements 
in each ? 8. What is the connectiye in each % 9. What are the elements of 
a compound word f 10. What is the connectiye in a compound word ? 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. The farmer ciroye an iron-gray horse. 

2. The gardener trimmed the grass-plot neatly. 

3. The Niagara Falls make a tremendous noise. 

4. Twenty-four grains make one pennyweight. 

5. The subject naturally precedes the predicate-yerb. 



60 GENDER. 

LII.— GENDER OF NOUNS.— INFLECTION. 

162. So far, we have considered, mainly, the use of words in a sen- 
tence [syntax]. We come now to speak more particularly of the different 
forms that words assume to vary their meaning, or to suit their relations 
to each other in a sentence. The noun boy is changed to boys to vary 
the meaning. Hero is changed to heroine ; long, to longer. " The boys 
talk " becomes " The boy talks," to suit the use of the verb with the sin- 
gular subject boy. This change in the ending of a word, either to vary its 
meaning or to adapt the form of one word to that of another, is called 
inflection [etymology]. 

Note. — The classification of the words in the language into the differ- 
ent parts of speech [p. 13] is the first part of etymology. The second part 
treats of the changes in the form of words. 

163. Every noun is the name of some being of the male 
sex or of the female sex, or of some thing which is assumed 
to be without sex. 

1. A heedless boy broke a costly window. 

2. A little girl soiled the new book. 

3. A strong man lifted a heavy box. 

4. A stately woman entered the room. 

5. The lion growled fiercely. 

6. The lioness seized her prey. 

7. John shot a beautiful bird. 

8. Mary embroidered a pretty cushion. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, the noun boy denotes the male sex, and 
in 2, the noun girl denotes the female sex ; but the noun book makes no 
suggestion of sex. 

Questions. — Which sex does each of the following nouns denote 1 Man, 
woman, lion, lioness, John, Mary, cushion, uncle, window, book. 

164. Nonns denoting the male sex are said to be of the 
masculine gender. The pronouns he, Ms, and Mm are mas- 
culine. 

165. Nouns denoting the female sex are said to be of the 
feminine gender. The pronouns she and her are feminine. 

Direction. — Mention the gender of each noun and pronoun in the eight 
preceding sentences. Analyze. 



GENDER FORMS. 



61 



166. Nouns that do not denote either sex are said to be 
of the neuter gender ; i. e., of neither gender. The pro- 
nouns it and its are neuter. 

167. The word neuter means neither. Although there is no neuter 
sex, yet we may properly speak of a neuter gender, this being simply a 
grammatical term applied to the names of things without life. 

168. Sex refers to the objects themselves ; gender re- 
fers only to words. 

169. Definition. — Gender is a difference in the form of 
words by which sex is distinguished. 

170. If the gender of such nouns as parent, teacher, cousin, etc, 
(which may suggest either of the sexes), can not be inferred from the con- 
text, it is better to say, in parsing, that they are either masculine or femi- 
nine gender. 

Questions. — What is meant by the term gender % 2. What is the differ- 
ence in the meaning of the terms sex and gender % 3. W T hat does the 
word neuter mean % 4. Of what gender are he, she, it, him, her % 



1. By a change of form : 



2. By the use of different words : 



LIII.-GENDER FORMS. 

171. The gender of nouns is distinguished in 

Masculine. 
Tiger, 
Count, 
Jew, 

t Hero, 
Man, 
Father, 
Boy, 

[ Bachelor, 

Man-servant, 
i?e-goat, 

Mr. Brown, 
Step-scm, 

Direction, — Arrange the following nouns under the 
heads just given : 



•f 



3. By prefixing or affixing another 
word, making a compound : 



three ways : 

Feminine. 

tigress. 

countess. 

Jewess. 

heroine. 

woman. 

mother. 

girl. 

maid. 

ma ^-servant. 

she-goa,t. 

Mrs. Brown. 

step-daughter. 

three different 



62 GENDER— PERSONIFICA HON. 

Duke, duchess ; miss, master ; empress, emperor ; marquis, marchion- 
ess ; negress, negro ; drake, duck ; male, female ; king, queen ; husband, 
wife ; peacock, peahen ; lad, lass ; sir, madam ; papa, mamma ; wizard, 
witch ; groom, bride ; administrator, administratrix ; lady, gentleman ; 
gander, goose ; Paul, Pauline ; baron, baroness ; lord, lady ; cock-sparrow, 
hen-sparrow ; widow, widower ; hart, roe ; Joseph, Josephine ; he-bear, she- 
bear; brother, sister; doctor, doctress; belle, beau; rooster, hen; steer, 
heifer ; czar, czarina ; uncle, aunt ; youth, maiden ; nephew, niece ; stag, 
hind ; fox, vixen * ; sultan, sultana ; archduke, archduchess ; male-child, 
female-child ; testator, testatrix ; slovern, slattern ; monk, nun. 

172. In each pair of such nouns as count, countess; Paul, 
Pauline \ shepherd, shepherdess, there are different forms of 
the same word to denote gender. Some nouns, then, have 
gender forms. 

173. Some pronouns indicate gender by their form. He 
indicates the masculine, she the feminine, and it the neuter, 
gender. 

LIV.-GENDER.— PERSONIFICATION. 

174. Nouns that are names of small animals, or of those 
whose sex is unknown or unimportant, are generally considered 
to be neuter ; as, 

1. I wounded the deer, but it escaped. 

2. He hurt the child, and it cried. 

3. The bee stung the child, and then it flew away. 

175. A pronoun must be of the same gender as its 
antecedent ; i. e., he, his, and him must be used for mascu- 
line nouns ; she and her for feminine nouns ; it and its for 
neuter nouns. In the three preceding sentences, the gender of 
deer, bee, and child are unknown ; therefore the neuter pro- 
noun it is used to represent each of them. 

176. The chief importance of gender, in grammar, lies in the 
correct use of the pronouns he, she, and it, and their variations. 

* Vixen is tjie old feminine of fox (once pronounced vox in some parts of England). 



GENDER.— PERSONIFICA TION. 63 

177. When animals are regarded as possessing masculine 
qualities or characteristics, although the sex may be unknown, 
they are represented by he, his, or him ; when they possess 
feminine qualities, they are represented by she or her ; as, 

1. The lion meets his foe boldly. 

2. The nightingale sang her sweetest song. 

3. The fox eluded his pursuers. 

4. The panther steals upon her prey. 

Personified Objects. 

178. Things without life are said to be personified when 
they are spoken to, or spoken of, as persons, or living beings. 
Nouns that are names of personified objects are regarded as 
either masculine or feminine, and the pronouns standing for 
such nouns must be masculine or feminine ; as, 

1. The sun displays his splendor. 

2. The moon arose; her silvery light revealed a charming scene. 

179. The following names of things personified are masculine-. The 
sun, time, winter, death, war. They convey the idea of strength, power, 
awe, or grandeur. 

180. The following are considered feminine: The moon, a ship, earth, 
night, spring. They convey the idea of beauty or weakness. 

181. Personified nouns expressing masculine characteristics are mas- 
culine ; those expressing feminine characteristics, feminine. 

182. When personification is strongly marked, the noun 
personified should begin with a capital letter ; as, 

1. "Then comes spring, bringing warmth and life" [not strongly 
marked]. 

2. " Come, gentle Spring ! ethereal mildness, come ! " [strongly 
marked]. 

LV.— PERSON FORMS. 

183. NoTins, standing for intelligent beings, are the names 
of persons speaking (or writing), of persons spoken to, or of 
persons or things spoken of. In speaking or writing, how- 



64 PERSON. 

ever, a person seldom uses his own name ; yet a name is some- 
times so used, as will be seen in the first of the following sen- 
tences : 

1. I, John, saw these things. 

2. John, you have a bad cold. 

3. He saw John yesterday. 

4. She lost a book, and John found it. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, / and John are used to represent the 
speaker. In 2, John and you are used to represent the person spoken to. 
In 3, he and John are used to represent the persons spoken of; In 4, she 
and John are used to represent the persons spoken of, and it represents 
the thing spoken of. There is no difference in the form of the noun John 
to show whether it represents the speaker, the hearer, or the person spoken 
of ; but there are different forms of pronouns to show these three distinc- 
tions ; viz., I, representing the first person ; you, the second ; he, she, and 
it, the third. 

184. Nouns, then, do not change their forms to denote the 
different persons. Most pronouns, however, have person forms. 

185. Definition. — Person is the use or form of a noun or 
pronoun to distinguish the speaker, the person spoken to, or 
the person or thing spoken of. [ Use of nouns ; use and form 
of pronouns.] 

186. The first person denotes the speaker. 

187. The second person denotes the person spoken to [hearer], 

188. The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. 

Direction. — Name the person of each noun and pronoun in the follow- 
ing sentences ; also name the gender and number of each ; name the ante- 
cedent of each pronoun : 

1. I found a watch, and Charles claimed it. 

2. William found a knife, but he soon lost it. 

3. You hurt Jane, and she cried bitterly. 

Questions. — 1. What is person ? 2. How many persons have nouns and 
pronouns ? 3. What is the first person? 4. The second person? 5. The 
third person ? 6. Do nouns have special forms to distinguish person ? 7. 
Do pronouns? 8. When is a pronoun in the first person? 9. When is a 
noun in the first person ? Second ? Third ? 



NUMBER FORMS. 65 

LVI.-FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF NOUNS. 

1. Chair, chairs. 3. Orange, oranges. 

2. Book, books. 4. Apple, apples. 

Questions. — 1. How many of these eight nouns are singular? 2. How 
many are plural ? 3. How does chair differ in meaning from chairs % 4. 
Book, from books % 5. What is the difference in spelling 1 6. How many 
of these words mean more than one % 

189. Common nouns, with few exceptions, have two 
forms to indicate number — a singular and a plural form. 

190. The singular form of a noun stands for a single thing, and is 
called the singular number. 

191. The plural form of a noun stands for more than one thing, and 
is called the plural number. 

192. Definition. — Number is that form of a word which 
shows whether the word refers to one thing, or to more than 
one. 

193. General Rule. — Most nouns form their plural number 
by adding s to the singular form. 

Direction.— Write, or spell orally, the plural of the following nouns, 
according to the general rule : 

House, roof, dog, cow, turkey, pencil, piano, tree, solo, monkey, bundle, 
star, planet, cap, letter. 

194. To form the plural of nouns not coming under the general rule, 
four special rules are given, requiring the addition of es, and two of these 
rules require a change in the terminal letter or letters before es is added. 

195. Special Rule 1. — Nouns ending in ch, sh, x, z, and s 
form their plurals by adding es to the singular form. 

Note. — The sound of s does not easily unite with these five termina- 
tions ; therefore es is added, making another syllable. 

Direction. — Write, or spell orally, the plural of the following nouns, 
and give the reasons : 

Hand, boy, dish, tree, box, desk, bush, gas, peach, pear, table, church, 
flower, chestnut, match, crutch, brush, topaz, fox, kiss. 



66 NUMBER FORMS. 

Bemark. — In giving reasons, any short form may be used. The follow- 
ing is suggested : Hand adds s according to the general rule. Dish ends 
in sh; therefore es is added. 

Questions. — 1. What is meant by number? 2. What is the singular 
number! 3. The plural number! 4. How is the plural of nouns gener- 
ally formed! 5. What nouns require the addition of es to form their 
plural number ! 6. Why do nouns ending in ch, sh, etc., add es to form 
their plural ! 

196. Special Rule 2. — Nouns ending in o, not preceded by 
a vowel, form their plurals by adding es to the singular ; as, 
negro, negroes. 

When the o is preceded by a vowel, only 5 is added. 

Direction. — Write, or spell orally, the plural of the following nouns, 
noticing that in eight of them the final o is preceded by a vowel : 

Hero, mosquito, cameo, cargo, bamboo, echo, calico, embryo, embargo, 
grotto, cuckoo, folio, innuendo, portfolio, motto, trio, mulatto, tornado, 
seraglio, potato, volcano. 

Exceptions. — The following nouns are exceptions to this rule : 
Albino, canto, domino, fresco, halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo, 
piano, portico, proviso, quarto, salvo, sirocco, solo, stiletto, tyro, zero. 

197. Special Rule 3. — Nouns ending in y, not preceded by 
a vowel, form their plurals by adding es, the y being changed 
into i\ as, city, "cities. 

When the y is preceded by a vowel, only s is added, and the y is not 
changed; as, toy, toys. 

Direction. — Write, or spell orally, the plural of the following nouns, 
and give reasons : 

Fancy, daisy, lady, jockey, candy, journey, berry, lily, joy, way, hobby, 
donkey, victory, turkey, bounty, country. 

198. Special Rule 4. — The following nouns ending in / or 
fe form their plurals by adding es, f or fe being changed 
into v\ as, 

Loaf, loaves-, life, lives; wife, wives-, knife, knives ; thief, thieves; 
beef, beeves ; calf, calves ; half, halves ; elf, elves ; self, selves ; shelf, 
shelves ; wolf, wolves ; staff, staves (or staffs) ; wharf, wharves (or wharfs). 



COMPOSITION. 67 

Other nouns ending in / or/e follow the general rule in forming their 
plurals. 

Questions. — 1. What is special rule 2? 2. Special rules 3 and 4? 3. 
Why does hero become heroes in the plural? 4. Why do turkey, candy, 
and knife become turkeys, candies, and knives, in the plural ? 



liVH.— COMPOSITION LESSON. 

199. Until the learner has acquired considerable knowledge 
of principles, the correction of compositions must be more or 
less arbitrary. But pupils may now learn to understand the 
proper use of is and are, ivas and were, has and have, with 
subjects having a singular or a plural meaning, by observing 
carefully the statements in the next two paragraphs. 

200. When we make a statement about one person or thing, requiring 
any of the verbs mentioned above, am, is, was, or has [singular forms] 
should be used ; i. e., a singular subject requires a singular verb. 

201. When we make a statement about more than one person or thing, 
are, were, or have [plural forms] should be used ; i. e., a plural subject 
requires a plural verb. 

Direction. — Fill each blank space in the following exercise with am, is, 
are, was, were, has, or have, and give the reason for each choice of a 
word: 

1. This orange ripe and juicy. 

2. These birds good singers. 

3. New York and Philadelphia large cities. 

4. The girls been to school to-day. 

5. My cousin and I been to the park. 

6. There a peach and a pear in the basket. 

7. The stars shining bright this evening. 

8. John and William — — the lunch-basket. 

9. There four of us in the party yesterday. 

10. father and mother gone to New York? 

11. I very sick this morning. 

Direction. — Combine each of the following sets of statements into a 
single sentence, changing the form of the verb to conform to the directions 
given above: 



68 



NUMBER FORMS. 



1. New York has a fine harbor. 

Portland has a fine harbor. 
3. His hat was found in the 
boat. 
His coat was found in the 
boat. 



2. The rose is a beautiful flower. 

The lily is a beautiful flower. 

4. Has that boy brought the 

bait? 

Has the other boy brought 

the oars? 



Direction. — In the following sentences, change the plural subjects to the 
singular form and the singular subjects to the plural form, making the 
necessary changes in the verbs and in other words : 

1. The slates need cleaning. 5. Ducks dive for food. 

2. Those boys go to school early. 6. This boy smokes cigars. 

3. His books were soiled. 7. Saplings become large trees. 

4. That boy has a gun. 8. Bobolinks lead a merry life. 



LVIII.-IRREGULAR PLURALS, 

202. Irregular Plurals. — A few nouns form their plural 
number irregularly, some by a change in one or more vowels, 
and others by adding en, either with or without other changes 
in the word ; as, 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1. man, men. 5. tooth, teeth. 

2. woman, women. 6. goose, geese. 

3. child, children. 7. mouse, mice. 

4. ox, oxen. 8. louse, lice. 

203. Plural of Letters and Figures. — The plural number of 
letters and figures is formed by adding the apostrophe and s ; 
as, Dot your €s and cross your fs and add the 9's correctly. 
But a noun representing a 'written number, forms its plural in 
the regular way ; as, Count by twos, fives, and tens. 

Direction. — Write the plurals of the following nouns, and give reasons : 
Board, pulley, baby, lily, street, grief, fife, cherry, church, journey, 
cameo, cliff, octavo, box, cargo, potato, monkey, calf, zero, loaf, money, 
jockey, hoof, ox, mouse, wife, handkerchief, 7, q, 5, 0, d. 

Review Questions. — 1. What is meant by number, in grammar? 2. 
How many numbers are there? 3. What is the singular number? 4. 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 69 

What is the plural $ 5. What is the general rule for forming the plural of 
nouns ? 6. How many special rules are given % 7. What is added to form 
the plural under the special rules ? 8. To which of the special rules are 
there quite a large number x)f exceptions % 9. Why does daisy add es to 
form the plural, while turkey adds only si 10. When the final letter of a 
word is not preceded by a vowel, what is it preceded by? 11. Name the 
vowels. 12. What kind of plurals are men and oxen called? 



MX.— OTHER FACTS ABOUT NUMBER. 

Remark. — This and the two following lessons may be deferred until 
verb-forms have been learned, especially the last parts of lessons sixty and 
sixty-one. 

204. Always Plural. — Some nouns that are the names of 
things consisting of a number of parts, or forming a pair, are 
always plural in form, and generally in meaning : 

Scissors, tongs, shears, pincers, manners, billiards, snuffers, bellows, 
ashes, clothes, trousers, thanks, riches, tidings, vespers, eaves, goods, 
vitals, entrails, dregs, victuals, annals, assets, nuptials, measles, mumps, 
hysterics, compasses. 

205. Plural in Form, Singular in Meaning. — Other nouns 
are always plural in form, but are generally singular in meaning : 

Amends, news, odds, gallows, pains (care), tidings, politics, ethics, 
physics, optics, mathematics, series, means. 

206. No Plural Form. — Some nouns have only one form 
for both numbers : 

Sheep, deer, swine, grouse, heathen, vermin, moose, trout, salmon, 
mackerel, herring, cannon. 

207. Always Singular. — Some nouns are always singular 
both in form and meaning : 

Courage, rhetoric, architecture, furniture, cider, milk, pitch, rye, 
wheat, lead, flax, pride, patience, music, gold. 

208. The Plural of Compounds. — Most compound nouns 
form their plurals by adding s to the principal part of the 
word: 



70 NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

Father-in-law, fathers-in-law ; eye-tooth, eye-teeth ; commander-in- 
chief, commanders-in-chief ; ox-cart, ox-carts; step-mother, step-movers; 
mouse-trap, mouse-traps; court-martial, courts-martial. 

209. Compounds ending in full, and those in which the 
descriptive part is not very obvious, form the plural by adding 
s to the end of the word : 

Spoonful, spoonfuls ; cupful, cupfuls ; runaway, runaways ; forget- 
me-not, forget-me-nots ; piano-forte, piano-/or/es ; jack-a-lantern, jack-a- 
lantems; tete-a-tete, tete-a-^es; camera-obscura, eamera-obscuras. 

Remark. — Any quantity measured by a cup or a spoon should be 
spoken of as cupfuls or spoonfuls. Cups full is not a compound. This 
expression denotes a number of cups, each being full. It is not correct to 
say, " She put three cupsful of jelly into the dish." 

210. A few compounds have both parts made plural : 

Man-servant, men-servants; woman-servant, women-servants; knight- 
templar, knights-templars. 

Questions. — 1. What is the singular of shears, news, sheep? 2. Plural 
of wheat f 3. Of cupful 1 4. Of runaway % 5. Of woman-servant % 



LX.— PLURALS OF PROPER AND FOREIGN NOUNS. 

211. The Plural of Proper Nouns. — Proper nouns form 
their plurals in the same way as common nouns of similar 
endings. When titles are used with proper names, the custom 
is to pluralize either the title or the name ; as, " The Misses 
Brown, or the Miss Browns." 

212. That the title only should be made plural, is apparent 
for the following reasons : 

1. No other form will answer in certain cases; as, "Senators Ferry 
and Morrill." 

2. Such awkward expressions as the following would be avoided : 
" The Miss Wilkinses," " The Miss Collinses." 

3. If the titles of such singular nouns as Field and Fields, Young and 
Youngs, are pluralized, no confusion can arise as to the spelling of the 
singular. But, " The two Miss Fields " may mean two ladies by the name 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 71 

of Field, or of Fields. No mistake could occur, however, should we write 
" The two Misses Field " or " The two Misses Fields." 

213. Foreign Plurals. — Some foreign nouns retain their 
native plurals. The ending is becomes es in the plural ; the 
ending ex or ix becomes ices ; um or on becomes a ; us be- 
comes i\ as, 

Axis, axes ; analysis, analyses ; basis, bases ; crisis, crises ; ellipsis, 
ellipses ; oasis, oases ; phasis, phases ; hypothesis, hypotheses ; appendix, 
appendices ; vortex, vortices ; vertex, vertices ; aquarium, aquaria ; datum, 
data ; erratum, errata ; effluvium, effluvia ; phenomenon, phenomena ; 
alumnus, alumni. 

214. Various Plurals. — Beau, beaux; genus, genera; ban- 
dit, banditti; seraph, seraphim; cherub, cherubim; stamen, 
stamina. 

Remark, — Beau, bandit, seraph, cherub, and stamen also form plurals 
by the general rule ; as, beau, beaus. 

215. Abstract nouns,* as such, have no plural form; as, 
beauty, pride, ambition, hope, hardness, goodness, ivhiteness, 
knoivledge, virtue, youth, heat, grandeur, industry, poverty. 

When used in the plural such nouns are class names ; as, 

1. We all admire beauty [abstract noun]. 

2. These sisters are famous beauties [common noun]. 

Questions. — 1. What is the singular of goods, bellows, mathematics % 
2. What is the plural of deer, handful, furniture, woman-servant, touch- 
me-not ? 3. Mention five nouns having only the plural form. 4 Five 
having only the singular form. 5. Five having the plural form, but are 
singular in meaning. 6. Five having only one form for both numbers. 
7. Give the plural of five compound nouns. 8. Give the plural of three 
foreign nouns. 9. How would you speak of two sisters by the name of 
Youngs % 10. What is the plural of basis, analysis, vertex, aquarium, 
bandit 6 ! 11. How is the plural of letters and figures formed'? 

* An abstract noun is the name of a quality, an action, or a state of being ; 
as, sweetness, darkness ; relief, deception ; peace, infancy. Abstract means drawn 
from, and when we speak of beauty we have in mind a quality not connected with 
any particular person or thing ; but when we speak of famous beauties the quality 
is associated with some particular persons. 



72 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 



LXI.— DOUBLE PLURALS. 

216. Some nouns have two plurals of different meanings : 



1. brother, brothers (by birth), 



2. 
3. 
4. 


die, 

fish* 

genius, 


dies (stamp for coining), 
fishes (number), 
geniuses (human beings), 


5. 
6. 

7. 
8. 
9. 
.0. 


head, 

index, 

pea, 

penny, 

shot, 

sail, 


heads (belonging to the body). 

indexes (tables of contents), 

peas (number), 

pennies (coins), 

shots (number of discharges), 

sails (pieces of canvas), 



11. staff, staffs (military term), 



brethren (of the same 

society), 
dice (for playing games), 
fish (quantity), 
genii (imaginary beings 

— spirits). 

head (of cattle). 

indices (algebraic signs). 

pease (quantity). 

pence (amount). 

shot (number of balls). 

sail (number of vessels). 

staffs ) . 

y (sticks, or canes), 
staves \ 



(The remainder of this lesson may be omitted till further progress has 
been made.) 

Direction. — Give the reason for the form of the verb used in each of 
the following sentences, but do not use the sentences for analysis until 
further progress has been made : 

1. Great pains was taken with his education. 

2. The sheep produces wool. 

3. The sheep are in the pasture. 

4. The deer is a beautiful animal. 

5. Deer are beautiful animals. 

6. A rare species of flower grows in our garden. 

7. Some beautiful species of flowers grow wild in the woods. 

8. The news is encouraging, 

9. The salmon is an excellent fish for food. 

10. Salmon are scarce this year. 

11. Mathematics is his favorite study. 

217. Some nouns, always plural in form, are used as either 
singular or plural, according as the mind is conscious of the 
thing as a whole, or as composed of parts : 



* The names of several kinds of fish, such as herring, mackerel, and trout, are 
used by some writers in the same way. 



COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 73 

1. This species of bird i?ihabits South America. 

2. These species of birds inhabit South America. 

3. The means employed was not sufficient. 

4. All the means at command were necessary. 

Direction. — Give the reason for the form of the verb used in each of 
the four preceding sentences. 

Beview Questions, — 1. What is meant by the singular form of nouns? 
2. By the plural form ? 3. What is the general rule for forming the plural 
of nouns? 4. What suffix besides s is used to form the plural of most 
nouns not coming under the general rule ? 5. How many special rules are 
given requiring the addition of es to form the plural ? 6. Which letters of 
the alphabet are vowels ? 7. Which are consonants f 8. How is the plural 
of attorney formed, and why? 9. Of berry, and why? 10. How is the 
plural of calico formed, and why? 11. Of cameo, and why? 12. How is 
the plural of a letter or a figure formed? 13. What is the custom for 
forming the plural of proper nouns when titles are used ? 14. How is the 
plural of tooth formed ? 



LiXU.— COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

lc Cane, canes. 3. Flock, flocks. 

2. Lamp, lamps. 4. Crowd, crowds. 

Questions. — 1. Does the singular form cane stand for one or more than 
one ? 2. Does lamp ? 3. Does flock ? 4. Does crowd ? 

218. The singular form of most nouns stands for only a 
single thing ; but there are a few nouns, like flock and croivd, 
that stand for more than one thing of the same kind, even in 
the singular form. Such nouns are called collective nouns. 

219. Definition. — A collective noun is one, which, in its 
singular form, denotes a collection of objects of the same kind. 

Direction. — Select the collective nouns found among the following 
names : Hammer, herd, letters, swarm, army, rug, class, nails, family, 
coat, assembly, multitude, mountains, pair, bevy, jury, congregation, 
committee, peasantry, society. 

Direction. — Use the sentences in this lesson for analysis after answers 
to questions have been learned, and other directions have been followed. 
6 



74 COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

220. A collective noun names a collection of living beings ; 
as, jury, society, herd, swarm. 

The name of a collection of objects without life is not a, collective 
noun ; as, pile, heap, mass, clothing, baggage, furniture, hosiery, finery, 
machinery. These are merely common nouns. 

221. A collective noun is neuter when reference is made to 
the individuals of the collection as one tvhole ; as, 

This teacher has a large class; I must divide it 

But when the individuals of the collection are referred to separately, 
the noun takes the gender of the individuals composing the collection. 

Direction. — Observe carefully the following sentences and determine 
whether, in the use of each collective noun, reference is made to the col- 
lection as a tvhole, or whether the individuals of the collection are referred 
to separately : 

1. Every congregation likes its own minister best. 

2. The congregation used their hymn-books. 

3. The sewing society elected its officers yesterday. 

4. The army followed their leader. 

5. The army fought bravely, but its commander fell. 

Explanation. — In the preceding sentences, congregation (in 1) is neuter, 
and is properly represented by the neuter pronoun it. In 2, congregation 
and their may be called either masculine or feminine, as both sexes may 
be considered to compose the collection. In 3, society and its are both 
considered neuter, and (in 4) army and their are both masculine. 

222. When a collective noun in the singular form is taken 
in a plural sense, it is sometimes called a noun of multitude ; 
as, " The congregation used their hymn-books." 

223. Most collective nouns have a regular plural form ; 
as, committees, armies, classes, families, congregations. These 
plural forms are in the neuter gender. 

Questions. — 1. What is a collective noun! 2. Why is army a collective 
noun 1 3. What is the plural of army f 4. Have collective nouns regular 
plural forms 1 5. Why is clothing not a collective noun ? 6. Is machinery 
a collective noun % 7. Why is committee a collective noun ? 8. What is 
the gender of armies, families 1 



COMPOSITION. 75 

Direction. — Select the collective nouns and the pronouns used to repre- 
sent them, and tell their gender : 

1. The army began its march. 

2. The jury rendered their verdict. 

3. Every generation has its peculiarities. 



LXm.— COMPOSITION LESSON. 

THE HOUSE IN THE MEADOW. 

It stands in a sunny meadow, 

The house, so mossy and brown, 
With its cumbrous old stone chimneys, 

And the gray roof sloping down. 

The trees throw their green arms around it— 

The trees a century old — 
And the winds go chanting through them, 

And the sunbeams drop their gold. 

The cowslips spring in the marshes, 

The roses bloom on the hill, 
And beside the brook in the pasture 

The herds go feeding at will. 

— Louise Chandler Moulton. 

224. Direction. — Ask four questions about the first verse, three ques- 
tions about the second, and four about the third. Finish the following 
incomplete topical outline, and write a prose composition, giving the sense 
contained in the poem. 

Topical Outline. 

Location — 

General appearance. 
Near surroundings. 
Distant surroundings. 



Description of 
" The House in the Meadow." ' 



76 RELATION FORMS OF NOUNS. 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. The nightingale sang her sweetest song. 

2. The small but courageous band finally drove back the enemy. 

3. Rainy weather and muddy roads prevented further progress. 

4. The feathery snow-flakes soon covered the valleys and hills. 

5. The merry party entered the garden and gathered fruits and flowers. 

6. She copied the paragraph quickly and very neatly. 

7. A large black Newfoundland dog saved a drowning child. 

8. This little twig bore that large red apple. 

LXIV.-RELATION FORMS OF NOUNS. 

225. We have learned that nouns change their form to in- 
dicate gender and number. We have also learned that a noun 
may hold the relation of subject or object of a verb. We shall 
now learn that a noun often holds another relation in a sen- 
tence, and that this relation causes the noun to change its form : 

1. Dishonest men often cheat honest men. 

2. This man falsely accused an innocent man, 

3. That man's horse travels very fast. 

4. The children's father arrived yesterday. 

5. That boy's mother treats him very kindly. 

6. The boys' mother treats them very kindly. 

7. A wicked boy stole Charles's hat. 

Explanation. — The plural noun men (in sentence 1) is of the same form 
both as subject and object. Man (in 2), as subject and object, is of the 
same form ; but man (in 3) is used to denote ownership, or possession,* 
and its form is changed by adding the apostrophe and s ['s] to indicate 
the possession. Children (in 4) and boy (in 5) add 's for the same reason. 
The plural noun boys ends in .s when ownership is not denoted ; therefore, 
in 6, boys' has only the apostrophe added, to indicate possession. In 7, 
the singular proper noun Charles, ending in s, adds 's. In " Socrates ? s 
death," the second s need not be sounded, if the ear be offended. 

226. Rule. — Any noun not ending in s must add the apos- 
trophe and s [ 's] to denote possession. 

* The horse can not be the "man's horse 11 unless he owns or possesses the ani- 
mal ; therefore "man's 11 denotes possession. Man's limits [modifies] horse like an 
adjective. 



RELATION FORMS OF NOUNS. 77 

227. Rule. — A plural noun already ending in s must add 
only the apostrophe [ ' ] to denote possession. 

228. Rule. — Singular proper nouns ending in s, take the 
full possessive sign [ \s] to denote possession. 

Questions. — 1. Why does man's (in 3) have a form different from man 
in 21 2. Why does children 's (in 4) take the apostrophe and s? 3. 
Why does boys' (in 6) take only the apostrophe ? 4. Why does 
Charles's (in 7) take the full possessive sign? 5. Has boy's (in 5) the 
full sign ? 6. What are the rules for the sign of possession ? 7. Give the 
possessive plural of girl and of woman- 1 8. Why are the plural posses- 
sive forms of these two nouns different % 9. Spell the possessive form of 
George, girls, aunt, cousins, uncle. 10. Is " the Adams's reception " cor- 
rect? 11. Write the seven sentences in this lesson correctlv. 



LXV.— RELATION FORMS OF NOUNS. 

229. A noun has two forms in each number to distinguish 
its relation to other words in a sentence — the name form 9 used 
as subject or object, and a form to denote possession. 

The name form of a noun (the form used simply as the name of any- 
thing apart from a sentence) is its subject form. In English, the object 
complement has not a form of its own, but takes the subject form. 

Sing. Plural. Sing. Plural. Sing. Plural. 

Subject forms: Man, men. Boy, boys. Cousin, cousins. 

Possessive forms : Man's, men's. Boy's, boys'. Cousin's, cousins'. 

Forms used for obj. : Man, men. Boy, boys. Cousin, cousins. 

Questions. — 1. Why is the apostrophe placed before the s in men's to 
mark the possessive form % 2. Why is the apostrophe in boys' placed after 
the s to mark the plural possessive % 3. In what respect does the object 
form differ from the subject form of a noun? 

Direction. — Write the following nouns in a column, and their plurals 
in a corresponding column on the right ; then add the correct possessive 
sign to each word : cousin, father, lady, man, brother, gentleman, servant, 
woman, fly, fox, child, baby, ox, ship, pupil, teacher, Wednesday. 

Direction. — Write correctly from dictation the following pairs of sen- 
tences, the noun being singular in the first, and plural in the second. 



78 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

State the reason for writing the possessive forms of the similar nouns in 
each pair : 

1. I heard the pupil's lessons. 1. I found the child's shoes. 

2. I heard the pupils' lessons. 2. I found the children's shoes. 

1. The lady's trunks arrived. 1. He took the physician's advice. 

2. The ladies' trunks arrived. 2. He took the physicians' advice, 

1. The boy's father returned. 1. The man's business prospered. 

2. The boys' father returned. 2. The men's business prospered. 

1. She upset the baby's carriage. 1. We saw the fox's burrow. 

2. She upset the babies' carriage. 2. We saw the foxes' burrow. 

230. The possessive form of a noun is sometimes called its adjective 
form, because its use is like that of an adjective — to modify the noun with 
which it is used. 

231. The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of one or more 
letters ; as. Til for / will$ we'll for we will ; o'er for over ; ne'er for 
never ; o'clock for of the clock. The apostrophe is also used to form the 
plurals of letters and figures; as, "Dot your Vs and cross your fs, and 
write your 7's and 9's neatly." 

LXVI.— PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

232. The five pronouns, 7, you, he, she, and it, and their 
plurals, are called personal pronouns ; and special forms are 
used to denote each of the three persons [186-7-8]. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person forms : I, we. 

Second person forms: You (thou), you (ye). 

Third person forms: He, she, it, they. 

Note. — Thou and ye are the "old style" singular and plural forms 
of the second person. 

233. Definition. — A personal pronoun is one that personates a 
noun ; i. e., stands directly for it. It shows by its form whether it 
denotes the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of. 

234. Yon, formerly used only in the plural, is now used in 
speaking to one person or to more than one ; but you, when 
used as a subject, always requires a plural verb. 



PRONOUNS.— RELATION FORMS. 79 

235. He, she, and it are. called gender pronouns because 
they show gender by their form — lie being masculine ; she, 
feminine ; and it, neuter. 

236. It represents objects without sex, or those whose sex 
is unknown or unimportant. 

Questions. — 1. What is a personal pronoun? 2. Mention the five sin- 
gular personal pronouns. 3. Which is the pronoun of the first person, 
and what is its plural ? 4. Which are the second person forms, singular 
and plural? 5. Which are the third person forms, singular and plural? 
6. Which are the gender pronouns ? 7. What are thou and ye ? 

LXVH.— RELATION FORMS. 

237. Two of the five personal pronouns, /and he, have three 
forms in each number to distinguish their relations to other 
words in a sentence — a subject form, a possessive form, and an 
object form ; as, 





(1st Per.) 


(2d Per.) 


(3d Per.) 




Sing. Plural. 


S. or P. 


Singular. Plural. 


Subject forms: 


I, we. 


You. 


He, she, it, they. 


Possessive forms: 


My, our. 


Your. 


His, her, its, their. 


Object forms : 


Me, us. 


You. 


Him, her, it, them. 



Directions. — Ask the following questions and require answers, pupils 
having books open at the lesson. Then write the pronouns promiscuously 
on the blackboard, and require pupils to point out the pronouns in answer 
to the same (or other) questions, books being closed. 

Questions. — 1. Which are the subject forms of the first person? 2. 
Second person? 3. Third person? 4. Which are the singular subject 
forms? 5. Plural subject forms? 6. Which are the singular and the 
plural possessive forms ? 7. The singular* and the plural object forms ? 
8. Which are the object forms of the first person ? 9. Of the second per- 
son? 10. Of the third person? 11. What are the three different relation 
forms of I in the singular, and also in the plural^ 12. What are the 
three different relation forms of he in the singular, and also in the plurals 
13. Which three pronouns have the same plural forms ? 14. Which three 
pronouns have each the same form for two different relations ? 15. Which 
two pronouns have their singular subject forms like their object forms? 
15. Which pronoun has its singular adjective form like its object form ? 



80 PRONOUNS.— RELATION FORMS. 

238. In using pronouns in sentences, care must be taken to 
use the correct forms for subjects, for objects, and to denote 
possession. Do not confound the pronoun their with the 
adverb there, nor use the pronoun them for the adjective these, 
or those. 

Direction. — Supply the correct forms of the pronoun of the first person, 
singular, in the first four of the following sentences, and the correct form 
of a pronoun of the third person, singular, in 5 and 6 ; also use in 7, 
8, 9, 10, and 11 the correct adjective form of some pronoun, or an adjec- 
tive or adverb mentioned in [238], 

1. Mary and visited Central Park. 

2. An ugly dog followed John and . 

3. James and found a bird's nest. 

4. Mother just called you and — — . 

5. and I generally sit together. 

6. Father will need James and soon. 

7. brother planted potatoes. 

8. Susan gathered ■ beautiful flowers. 

9. The boys soiled new clothes. 

10. I looked , but I could not find the book. 

11. trunks came yesterday. 

239. A pronoun used as the subject of a verb must have 
the subject form. 

240. A pronoun used as the object complement of a verb 
must have the object form. 

241. A noun or pronoun used to denote possession must 
have the jjossessive form. 

Direction. — Tell the gender, person, number, and relation of the nouns 
in the following sentences. Tell why each pronoun has its particular 
form in regard to gender. Justify the use of each pronoun on account 
of its relation. Mention the antecedent of each pronoun : 

1. He deserves a reprimand. 2. We saw him yesterday. 3. Mary 
found a bird's egg, but she carelessly broke it. 4. The cow eats grass, 
and then she lies down and chews her cud. 5. You soiled your new book. 
6. The boys started, but they soon returned. 7. We found some wild 
strawberries and we picked them. 



PARSING. 81 

LXVIH.- RELATION FOEMS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Direction. — Write the following sentences, using the possessive sign 
properly ; -determine the number of each noun by the pronoun following 
it ; justify the use of each pronoun in regard to form : 

1. The boys mother reproved them sharply. 2. The boys mother re- 
proved him sharply. 3. The girls teacher detained her yesterday. 4. The 
girls teacher detained them yesterday. 5. A poor boy found the ladys 
watch. 6. The ladies baggage finally arrived. 7. The farmers horse ran 
away. 8. The farmers association met yesterday. 9. The thief stole 
Charles watch. 10. John lost his new knife. 

Model for Analysis. 
1. My youngest brother broke the old gardener's rake. 

242. This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is " my 
youngest brother.'' The entire predicate is " broke the old gardener's rake." 
The simple subject brother is modified by the possessive pronoun my and 
the adjective youngest. The predicate-verb broke is completed by the ob- 
ject complement rake, which is modified by the possessive noun gardener's ; 
and the noun gardener's is modified by the adjectives the and old. 

Review Questions. — 1. How are nouns written to indicate number! 2. 
Do all nouns add s or es to indicate the plural? 3. What other forms 
have nouns besides number-forms? 4. In how many relations may nouns 
and pronouns be used in a sentence ? 5. Do nouns have a special form 
for each relation? 6. Do pronouns? 7. In which relation does a noun 
not have a form of its own ? 8. Do pronouns add letters to indicate num- 
ber? 9. Do pronouns add the apostrophe and s to indicate possession? 
10. Which is the adjective form of a pronoun ? 

LXIX.— RELATIONS OF WORDS AND PARSING. 

1. That old farmer's son generally raises good crops. 

243. Every word in this sentence is used in a certain relation to some 
other word in it ; i. e., every word performs a certain office in the sentence. 
Son and raises hold the relation to each other of subject and predicate- 
verb ; and the noun crops holds the relation of object of the verb raises. 
That, old, farmers, and good hold the relation of adjective modifiers of 
the nouns with which they are used ; and generally holds the relation of 
adverbial modifier of raises. 



82 



PARSING. 



244. Parsing. — Parsing * a word is giving an orderly state- 
ment of its grammatical use in a sentence (oral parsing 281). 

Direction. — After analyzing the sentences at the bottom of the page, 
parse them according to the following model : 

245. MODEL FOR WRITTEN PARSING. 



Word. 


Class. 


Gender. 


Per- 
son. 


Num- 
ber. 


Relation 
form. 


Office. 


The 


lim. adj. 








modifies boys 


dutiful 


des. adj. 










modifies boys 


boys 


com. noun 


masc. 


3d 


plur. 


subject 


subj. of obeyed 


obeyed 


trans, verb 










predicate- verb 


their 


pers. pron. 


masc. 


3d 


plur. 


possessive 


modifies father's 


father's 


com. noun 


masc. 


3d 


sing. 


possessive 


mod. instruction 


instruction 


com. noun 


neuter 


3d 


sing. 


object 


object of obeyed 


and 


conj. 










con. two mem. 


he 


pers. pron. 


masc. 


3d 


sing. 


subject 


subj. of praised 


praised 


trans, verb 










predicate-verb 


them 


pers. pron. 


masc. 


3d 


plur. 


objective 


object of praised 


very 


adverb 










modifies highly 


highly 


adverb 










modifies praised 



Sentences for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. William's companion soon caught two very beautiful butterflies. 

2. The gentle rain moistened the thirsty earth. 

3. John's father met us yesterday. 

4. My uncle met our party very cordially. 

5. Some pupils write very good compositions. 

6. We often resolve but we seldom fulfill. 

7. The warm sun soon melted the ice and snow. 

8. The moon arose, and her silvery light displayed a charming scene. 

9. Loudly the thunder rolled and brightly the lightning flashed. 
10. The dutiful boys obeyed their father's instruction, and he praised 

them very highly. 

* The real object in parsing is to discover whether the words in a sentence are 
properly used in their several relations, in regard to form, etc. Another object is to 
develope the mental faculties. 



COMPOSITION. 83 

LXX.-SYNTHESIS. 

246. Direction. — Combine the following disconnected statements into 
a connected narrative. First, with the class^ compare the narrative given 
below with the separate statements. Then write the statements on the 
blackboard, and require pupils to write from them a narrative, not neces- 
sarily like the one below : 

It was a bright morning in July. 

We prepared for a sail across the bay. 

There were ten ladies and gentlemen in the party. 

There was a fine breeze. We soon crossed the bay. 

On the way over a lady lost her hat. 

The captain put the boat about; sailed close to the hat. 

One of the party reached it; pulled it out of the water. 

It soon dried; was as good as ever. 

We landed on a beautiful beach. It was sandy. 

From this point, across to the ocean, it was three miles. 

We engaged a man to take us across. 

He prepared his team. We ate our lunch under the trees. 

Only two gentlemen attempted to bathe in the ocean. 

A large wave came sweeping in. 

One tried to ride the wave by swimming. 

The wave broke before he reached its crest. 

It turned him over backward. 

He struck on the beach, lying on his back. 

It was a laughable sight. 

It did not hurt him. 

Combined. 

On a bright morning in July, a party of ten ladies and gentlemen pre- 
pared for a sail across the bay, and for a ride from the landing across to 
the ocean, a distance of three miles. A fine breeze soon carried us to the 
other side of the bay. On the way over, one of the ladies lost her sun-hat 
overboard ; but the captain quickly put the boat about, and, sailing close 
to the hat, one of the party reached it and pulled it out of the water. It 
was soon dried and was as good as ever. 

After landing on a beautiful sandy beach, we engaged a man to drive 
us over to the ocean. While he was preparing his team, we ate our lunch 
in the shade of the trees. On our arrival at the ocean, we found the waves 
so very high that only two gentlemen ventured to take a bath. While 



84 CASES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

they were bathing, one of them, seeing a very large wave sweeping toward 
him, attempted to surmount it by swimming ; but the wave, breaking be- 
fore he reached its crest, threw him over toward the beach. He struck on 
his back unhurt, where he lay for a moment presenting a very laughable 
appearance. 

LXXI.— CASES.— DECLENSION. 

247. The different forms of a pronoun showing its use 
as subject or object, or in denoting possession [ownership], 
are called its cases. 

248. The subject form of a pronoun is its nominative case. 

249. The possessive form of a pronoun is its possessive case. 

250. The object form of a pronoun is its objective case. 

251. A noun has only two different forms to indicate its 
uses in a sentence — a subject [or name] form and a possessive 
form ; yet a noun is considered to have three cases, corre- 
sponding with its uses as subject and object, and as denoting 
possession. 

252. Definition. — Case in grammar is that form of a noun 
or pronoun which shows its relation to some other word in a 
sentence. 

253. Definition. — The nominative case is the form of a 
noun or pronoun required, when it is the subject of a verb. 

254. Definition.— The possessive case is the form of a 
noun or pronoun required, when it is used to denote possession, 
origin, or fitness [260]. 

255. Definition. — The objective case is the form of a 
noun or pronoun required, when it is the object of a verb. 

Note. — There is no distinct form of a noun as an object complement ; 
yet its use as an object entitles it to be considered as being in the ob- 
jective case. 

Remark. — We have now seen that nouns and pronouns are inflected to 
show gender, number, and case. 



CASES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 85 

256. Rules for Construction. 

Rule 1. — A noun or a pronoun used as the subject of a 
verb must be in the nominative case. 

Rule 2. — A noun or a pronoun used to modify another 
noun by denoting possession, origin, or fitness, must be in the 
possessive case. 

Rule 3. — A noun or a pronoun used as the object of a 
transitive verb must be in the objective case. 

257. Declension. — The following arrangement of the case- 
forms of the pronoun is called declension : 





Singular. Plural. 


Nom. case 


I, Nom. case We, 


Poss. case 


My (or mine), Poss. case Our (or ours), 


Obj. case 


Me, Obj. case Us. 




(Or more briefly) 




Singular. Plural. 


Nom. 


I, Norn. We, 


Poss. 


My (or mine), Poss. Our (or ours), 


Obj. 


Me. Obj. Us. 


Remark. — A pronoun is said to be declined when its cases are given in 


both numbers. 





Questions. — 1. How many case-forms has the pronoun / in the sin- 
gular number! 2. In the plural number? 3. Which case is used for the 
subject in a sentence? 4. Which for the object? 5. To denote posses- 
sion ? 6. What is case ? 7. Nominative case ? 8. Possessive case ? 9. 
Objective case? 10. For how many purposes are nouns and pronouns 
inflected ? 11. When is a pronoun declined ? 

258. Direction. — Mention the pronouns in the following sentences and 
justify the use of each as to form. Write the parsing of two or more of 
these sentences according to the following model, noticing that " Case " is 
used for a heading in place of " Relation Form " ; as in the model pre- 
viously given [245], 

1. I soiled my new coat, and my mother scolded me. 

2. Our teacher helped us yesterday, and we now understand our 
lesson. 



86 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



3. He ran very fast, but his companion soon overtook him. 

4. General Lincoln's forces desperately assaulted the enemy's works. 

5. The enemy drove back the American forces. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, I has no antecedent ; it simply repre- 
sents the person speaking. My and me have / for their antecedent. 

MODEL FOR WRITTEN PARSING. 



Word. 


Class. 


Gender. 


Person. 


Number. 


Case. 


Office. 

















LXXII.-DECXENSION OF 





Singular. 


Nom. 


boy, 


Poss. 


boy's, 


Obj. 


boy. 




Singular. 


Nom. 


man, 


Poss. 


man's, 


Obj. 


man. 




Singular. 


Nom. 


lady, 


Poss. 


lady's, 


Obj. 


lady. 



F NOUNS. 




Plural. 


Nom. 


boys, 


Poss. 


boys', 


Obj. 


boys. 




Plural. 


Nom. 


men, 


Poss. 


men's, 


Obj. 


men. 




Plural. 


Nom. 


ladies, 


Poss. 


ladies', 


Obj. 


ladies. 



259. Definition. — The declension of a noun or a pronoun 
is the naming of its cases in both numbers. 

260 o Nouns in the possessive case do not always express ownership ; 
they sometimes express source or fitness ; as, " The sun's rays warm the 
earth " [source]. " We saw some ladies' shoes " [shoes suitable or fit for 
ladies]. " They keep Coifs revolvers " [source — revolvers made by Colt]. 

Questions. — 1. Do all nouns in the possessive case express possession % 
2. What do they sometimes express! 3. Decline boy, man, lady. 4. What 
parts of speech may an antecedent be ? 5. Decline girl, fly, John, 6. 
What is declension f 



DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



87, 



liXXIII.— DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

261. The five personal pronouns have the following varia- 
tions : 

First Person, I. 

Singular. Plural. 

I, Nom. we, 

my (or mine), Poss. our (ours), 

me. Obj. us. 



Masculine r Nom. 
or \ Poss. 
Feminine. I Obj. 



Second Person, You (thou). 

Singular. 

Masculine r Nom. you, Nom. 

or J Poss. your (yours), Poss. 

Feminine. [ Obj. you. Obj. 

Third Person, He, She, It. 

Singular. 



Plural. 

you, 

your (yours), 
you. 



r Nom. 


he, 






Masculine. <j Poss. 
1 Obj. 


his, 






him. 




Plural. 


r Nom. 


she, 


Nom. 


they, 


Feminine. «J Poss. 
1 Obj. 


her (hers), 


► Poss. 


their (theirs), 


her. 


Obj. 


them. 


r Nom. 


it, 






Neuter. <j Poss. 


its, 






1 Obj. 


it. 







262. The following is the old method of declining the pro- 
noun of the second person, which should be carefully compared 
with the method in present use, as given above : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. thou, Nom. ye, or you, 

Poss. thy (thine), Poss. your (yours), 

Obj. thee. % Obj. you. 

263. These ancient forms are now used orally only by the Friends, and 
in religious services, They are found in poetry, in the Bible, and in other 
ancient writings. Thou as a subject requires a form of verb different 
from that required by you ; as, " You shall go," " Thou shalt not steal." 



88 RELATIONS OF PRONOUNS. 

LXXIY.-USE OF PRONOUN FORMS. 

1. You and / had a splendid visit. 

2. That ugly dog followed you and / yesterday [incorrect]. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, you and I are both subject forms, and 
are correctly used. Because you and 1 are correctly associated together 
as subjects, some make the mistake of using them together as objects. 
You is both a subject form and an object form, but i" is a subject form 
only. 

264. No mistake can occur in using nouns as subjects and 
objects, because the same form of a noun is used in both these 
relations ; but there are six of the personal pronouns used as 
subjects that change their form when used as objects. 

265. These six pronouns are /, thou, he, she, tve, and they, 
which, used as objects, change to me, thee, him, her, us, and them. 

Direction. — Complete the following sentences by inserting the correct 
relation forms of the pronouns indicated in the brackets at the end of 
each line, and give the reason for your choice of each [see 256] : 

1. and picked the berries [3d fem., and 1st — both sing.]. 

2. Mother scolded and yesterday [3d sing, fem., and 1st]. 

3. and caught twenty fish [3d sing, mas., and 2d plu.]. 

4. Father called and [2d plu., and 3d fem., sing.]. 

5. 1 saw and yesterday [2d plu., and 3d plu., mas.]. 

6. mother dresses becomingly [3d sing., fem. — both]. 

7. Did recite lessons correctly [2d plu. — both] 1 

8. Did mean and [2d sing., 3d sing., fem., and 1st sing.] f 

266. Pronouns may be modified by adjectives, but an adjec- 
tive always follows the pronoun to which it relates. 

1. He looks weary. 

2. She feels sick. 

3. We found him asleep. 

Questions. — 1. Which pronouns are always used for subjects 1 2. Which 
always for objects 1 3. Which pronouns have the same form for both sub- 
ject and object! 4. Which pronoun has only one form for the possessive, 
and the objective case % 5. Why is there no difficulty in using any noun 
as subject or object % 6. Decline the five personal pronouns. 



CONTRACTIONS. 89 

LXXV.— CONTRACTION OF WORDS. 

267. In familiar conversation and writing, an expression like 1 will 
is contracted into Til for the sake of brevity, and also to avoid unnecessary 
formality. In poetry it is often necessary to make these contractions to 
lessen the number of syllables in a line. 

Allowable Contractions, 

268. Tve for I have; they'll for they will; dont iovdonot; he's for 
he is or he has; we've for we have; doesn't for does not; isn't for is not; 
His for it is ; can't for can not ; o'er for over ; ne'er for never ; o'clock 
for of (the) clock. 

Improper Contractions. 

269. Ain't and 'tain't should never be used. Do not use don't for 
does not. " He don't know " is incorrect. Aren't for are not is sometimes 
used, but " They're not going " is better than " They aren't going." 

Direction. — Re-write the following sentences, making all the proper 
contractions possible : 

They are not coming. We have found them. He does not know. 
We do not know. I have heard from home. They will be sorry. They 
do not hear. He is going away. It is for you I am anxious. I have 
finished my letter. He has traveled over land and sea. He will go to- 
morrow. It is seven of the clock. 

Review Questions. — 1. What is a sentence? 2. What is the natural 
order of the principal parts of a sentence ? 3. Is this order always ob- 
served in the construction of sentences ? 4. Is a transitive verb a complete 
or an incomplete verb ? 5. What is an object complement ? 6. What is an 
imperative sentence ? 7. An exclamatory sentence ? 8. An interrogative 
sentence ? 9. What is meant by the entire subject ? 10. When is the verb 
in a sentence the entire predicate®. 11. What is a secondary modifier? 
12. What is a compound sentence? 13. What is a conjunction? 14. Use 
the verb reads as a transitive verb; also as an intransitive verb? 15. 
What is a proper noun ? 16. What is the difference between gender and 
sex®. 17. What are the rules for forming the possessive case of nouns? 
18. What two contractions are not allowable ? 19. When is don't a proper 
contraction? 20. When is don't an improper contraction? 21. What is 
parsing? 22. What is stated in the foot-note, on p. 82, in reference to 
parsing ? 

7 



90 PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS. 

LXXVI.-PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS. 

We have learned [145] that " the noun for which a pronoun stands is 
called its antecedent." We have also learned [144] that a personal pro- 
noun is often used without an antecedent, and that an antecedent may be 
either a noun or another pronoun. 

270. In using a personal pronoun, care must be taken to 
select the proper pronoun according to the following rule : 

271. Rule for Construction. — A pronoun must be in the 
same gender, person, and number as its antecedent. 

1. The spider again repaired its fragile web. 

2. Every man knows his own business best. 
Explanation. — In sentence 1, the antecedent spider, being neuter, third, 

singular, is properly represented by the pronoun its, which is also neuter, 
third, singular. In 2, the antecedent man being masculine, third, singu- 
lar, is properly represented by the pronoun his, which is also masculine, 
third, singular. 

Direction. — Use the proper pronoun in the blank spaces in the follow- 
ing, and give the reason for its use : 

1. A studious girl recites lessons correctly. 

2. Every soldier received rations. 

3. The little bird carefully lined tiny nest. 

272. Rule for Construction. — A pronoun must be plural 

when it represents two or more antecedents connected by 

and ; as, 

1. The cat and the dog ate their dinner together. 

Note. — If the antecedents so connected are only different names for 
the same person or thing, the pronoun must be singular ; as, That eminent 
statesman and orator delighted his hearers. 

273. Rule for Construction. — A pronoun must be singular 
when it represents two or more singular antecedents connected 
by or or nor; as, 

1. Neither James nor William has done his work correctly. 

Note. — If one of the antecedents is plural, the pronoun must be plural, 
and the plural antecedent should stand nearest the pronoun ; as, Either 
James or his younger brothers will help their father. 



PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS. 91 

Questions. — 1. What is an antecedent? 2. What two parts of speech 
may be antecedents*"? 3. In what three respects must a pronoun represent 
its antecedent ? 4. Give the reason for the use of the pronouns in the 
sentences illustrating the other rules in this lesson. 5. Repeat these rules. 

LXXVII.— PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS. 

The whole, or any part of this lesson, may be omitted until further 
progress shall have been made. The lesson should be learned by com- 
paring with the text the sentences given for completion. 

274. A pronoun, representing two or more antecedents of 
different persons, must be in the first person if either ante- 
cedent is in the first person; if neither antecedent is in the 
first person the pronoun must be in the second person ; as, 

1. John and / like our presents. 

2. You and John do your work very neatly. 

275. A pronoun representing a collective noun conveying 
the idea of unity [221], must be in the singular number; as, 

1. This teacher has a large class; I must divide it 

2. Every congregation likes its own minister best. 

276. When two or more personal pronouns are used in con- 
nection, the second person should precede the others, and the 
third person should precede the first ; as, You and I. You 
and he. She and /. 

277. Usage has fixed upon he and its variations to represent 
an antecedent whose gender is doubtful ; as, 

1. Every person must take care of himself, 

2. Every one should love his own country. 

Direction.— Complete the following sentences by inserting the correct 
form of pronoun in each, giving a reason for each insertion. These sen- 
tences should not now be given for analysis : 

1. Every boy must use own books. 2. Mary and Susan have 

recited lessons. 3. William or Henry has lost books. 4. Either 

Julia or her sisters will assist mother. 5. Every class must take : 

proper position. 6. The girls must obey teacher. 7. Every one 

should make useful. 8. Every person occasionally loses temper. 



92 QUOTATIONS.— DIRECT AND INDIRECT. 

9. The jury rendered verdict. 10. When want knife or 

pencil can have . 11. and will go to the fair. 

12. and came in late this morning. 13. Neither Mary nor 

Susan offered assistance. 14. You know that every one has 

own troubles. 15. If any one thinks it is easy to recite a poem in public, 
let try it. 

278. Care must be taken in using a pronoun when the 
antecedent is composed of two singular nouns of different 
genders; as, 

1. When any boy or girl wishes to leave their seat, they must get per- 
mission to do so. [Incorrect — their and they are in the wrong number.] 

2. When any boy or girl wishes to leave his or her seat, he or she 
must get permission to do so. [Number and gender correct, but very 
awkward.] 

3. When boys or girls wish to leave their seats, they must get permis- 
sion to do so. [Correct.] 



1LXXVIII.— QUOTATIONS.— DIRECT AND INDIRECT, 

279. There are two kinds of quotations : 

1. The direct, containing the exact words of the speaker or writer ; 
as, " Dickens's works," said he, " are very interesting." 

2. The indirect, containing the substance of the words of the speaker 
or writer ; as, He said that Dickens's works are very interesting. 

280. The indirect quotation does not require quotation 
marks, nor to be set off by commas ; as, 

1. My teacher said that I must remain. 2. My father said I must 
return early. 3. He declared that he would execute the contract faith- 
fully. 

Direction. — Dictate the following sentences to be written, pupils being 
required to use commas and quotation marks correctly : 

1. Holmes says, " Sin has many tools, but a lie is a handle that fits 
them all." 

2. " Sing to me, dearest nightingale," said a shepherd to the silent 
songstress. 

3. Goldsmith says, " People seldom improve when they have no other 
model but themselves to copy after." 



ORAL PARSING. 93 

4. The willow said to the oak, " I am more graceful than thou." 

5. Shenstone says, " Long sentences in short compositions are like 
large rooms in little houses." 

6. " Let me make the ballads of a nation," said Fletcher, " and I care 
not who makes the laws." 

Note. — When a quotation is divided by the insertion of other words 
(as in sentence 6), each division should be enclosed by quotation marks. 

Direction. — Punctuate the two following sentences by using commas 
and quotation marks, so that in the first sentence the witness shall do the 
saying, and, in the second, Plato shall do the saying : 

1. The prisoner said the witness is a convicted thief. 

2. A boy says Plato is the most vicious of all wild beasts. 

LXXIX.— ORAL PARSING. 

281. Remarks on Parsing. — Routine parsing is often carried to such 
an extreme as seriously to interfere with the object that should ever be 
uppermost in teaching grammar, viz., speaking and writing correctly. 
After pupils have become familiar with the routine of parsing the differ- 
ent parts of speech, the most of the time generally devoted to a parsing 
lesson should be used in simply mentioning the parts of speech and their 
relations in the sentence, and giving the reasons for the relation forms 
when there are any. Only a few pupils should be required, during one 
lesson, to parse words in detail. More time will thus be secured for 
analysis and synthesis of sentences. 

Hoiv to parse Personal Pronouns. 

282. A personal pronoun is parsed by stating the five 
particulars that have been learned about it : 

1. The class— personal, and why. 

2. The gender — masculine, feminine, or neuter, and why. 

3. The person— first, second, or third, and why. 

4. The number — singular or plural, and why. 

5. The case — nominative, possessive, or objective, and why. 

Remarks. — Pronouns of the first and second persons may be in either 
the masculine or the feminine gender. 

Personal pronouns are so often used without antecedents that it is 
perhaps better not to mention their agreement in parsing. The rules of 



94 ORAL PARSING. 

syntax may be given or may be omitted. These rules are for construction, 
primarily, rather than for parsing [271]. 

1. He knows me. 

2. I found his book. 

283. Parsing Models. — He is a personal pronoun ; in the masculine 
gender, because it represents a person of the male kind ; in the third 
person, because it denotes the person spoken of; in the singular number, 
because it denotes but one ; in the nominative case, because it is the 
subject of the verb knows [256, 1], 

Note. — This model, in its details, should be discontinued as soon as 
pupils are familiar with the distinctions. 

Abbreviated Models. — He is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, 
third person, singular number, nominative case, being the subject of the 
verb knows. Or, briefer and better — 

He is a personal pronoun, masculine, third, singular, nominative, 
being the subject of the verb knows. 

Me is a personal pronoun, third, singular, objective, being the object 
of the transitive verb knows [256, 3]. 

i" is a personal pronoun, first, singular, nominative, being the subject 
of the verb found. 

His is a personal pronoun, masculine, third, singular, possessive, and 
modifies the noun book [256, 2]. 

How to parse Nouns. 

1. John quickly gathered some delicious grapes. 

2. William's brother helped John. 

284. Parsing Models. — John is a proper noun, masculine, third, sin- 
gular, nominative, being the subject of the verb gathered. 

Grapes is a common noun, neuter, third, plural, objective, being the 
object of the transitive verb gathered. 

William's is a proper noun, masculine, third, singular, possessive, and 
modifies the noun brother. 

Hoiv to parse Adjectives and Adverbs. 

285. Parsing Models. — Some is a limiting adjective and modifies the 
noun grapes. 

Delicious is a descriptive adjective, and modifies the noun grapes. 
Quickly is an adverb, and modifies the verb gathered. 



DOUBLE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 95 

Direction. — Parse orally the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs 
in the following sentences : 

1. We soon reached the African coast. 

2. Some pupils write very good compositions. 

3. A majestic oak shaded the beautiful lawn. 

4. The dutiful boys obeyed their father's instruction, and he praised 
them very highly. 

286. Parsing Model. — And (in 4) is a conjunction, and connects the 
two members of the compound sentence. [Mention the members separately.] 



LXXX.-DOUBIiE POSSESSIVE FORMS.— INDEFINITE IT. 
—COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

287. The possessive forms, mine, thine* ours, yours, hers, and theirs 
are seldom now used except when the name of the thing possessed is omitted. 
They are generally considered as standing for the possessor and the thing 
possessed ; as, " John ate his orange, you ate yours [your orange], and I ate 
mine [my orange]." These pronouns are thus disposed of by some 
grammarians. 

In regard to the peculiar constructions, " a friend of mine," " that 
head of yours," "this heart of mine," and "this wicked world of ours" 
(in none of which does the pronoun properly represent the possessor and 
the thing possessed), these grammarians supply the word possessing ; as, 
"this heart of mine [my possessing]. But this method of disposing of 
these pronouns is considered, by many, unsatisfactory. 

288. The forms, mine and thine, formerly used with 
nouns as possessive modifiers, have become absolved [freed] 
from such use, and are now used alone in the sense of nouns ; 
they may, therefore, be called absolute possessive pro- 
nouns. For the sake of uniformity, it is better to call all of 
these double possessive forms (when unaccompanied by nouns) 
absolute possessive pronouns, having the nominative and ob- 
jective relations of nouns. 

289. Mine and thine are still used as possessive modifiers in poetry 
and in the solemn style ; as, " I shaded mine eyes one day." — J. Ingelow. 
" Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow."— Byron. " Mine enemies 
speak evil of me." — Bible. 



96 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

290. Indefinite It. — It often denotes simply a state or condition of 
things ; as, " It rains " ; " It snows " ; " It thunders." Used in this way it 
has no antecedent, and is said to be used indefinitely. 

291. Compound Personal Pronouns. — The compound per- 
sonal pronouns my self, thyself, himself] herself and itself and 
their plurals ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are formed by 
adding self to my, thy, him, her, and it for the singular, and 
selves to our, your, and them for the plural. These compound 
personal pronouns may be used either as subjects or objects, 
but never to denote possession. 

Questions. — 1. When are mine, thine, etc., used ? 2. To what do some 
authors consider them equivalent ? 3. What would they consider ours 
equivalent to in " This world of ours " ? 4. What name is given to these 
pronouns in this lesson! 5. Considering them absolute possessive pro- 
nouns, parse all those found in [287]. 6. What name is given to it in 
" It rains " ? 7. Show how the singular compound personal pronouns 
(mentioned above) are formed ; also the plural compounds. 

LXXXI.-RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Note to Teachers. — No use of this lesson should be made here other 
than to aid pupils in the correct use of relative pronouns in speaking, and 
in writing compositions. The pronouns should not be parsed, nor should 
the sentences be analyzed : 

1. I know the man who built this boat. 

2. I have a horse which can trot very fast. 

3. William returned the book that he borrowed. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, who is used instead of the noun man. 
In 2, which is used instead of the noun horse. In 3, that is used instead 
of the noun book. Therefore who, which, and that are pronouns. 

292. The pronouns who, which, and that are called rela- 
tive pronouns. 

293. Who is used when the antecedent is the name of a 

person ; as, 

1. The man who just passed us built our house. 

2. We have a workman who understands his business. 



Relation 


Forms. 




Singular. 






Plural. 




Who, 






Nom. Who, 




Whose, 






Poss. Whose, 




Whom. 






Obj. Wliom. 




is used 


when 


the 


antecedent is 


either 



RELATIVE PRONOUXS.— COMPOSITION. 97 



Nbm. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

294. Which is used when the antecedent is either the 
name of an animal or of a thing ; as, 

1. The buffalo, which once roamed the prairies, has become very scarce. 

2. The figs which we ate came in a very neat box. 

295. That may be used in the place of either who or which ; 
i. e., the relative that may be used instead of the name of a 
person, of an animal, or of a thing ; as, 

1. The man that rescued the child received a reward. 

2. The dog that bit my brother died yesterday. 

3. The storm that came so suddenly did much damage. 

Direction. — Point out the relative pronoun and its antecedent in each 
of the preceding sentences. 

Questions. — 1. In speaking or writing, what nouns must the relative 
pronoun who represent ? 2. What nouns must which represent ? 3. What 
nouns may that represent ? 4. Would it be correct to say, " The horse 
who ran away was soon caught " I 

LXXXtt. -SYNTHESIS.— NARRATIVE. 

296. Direction. — Combine the following statements into a connected 
narrative. This may be practiced in parts, orally, and then written as a 
composition : 

I was boarding at a mountain resort. I arose one morning. It was 
at seven o'clock. The morning was cool. It was pleasant. I prepared 
for breakfast. I ate my breakfast. I then started on a tramp. I went 
with my friend. We rowed across the lake. We landed on the opposite 
side. We determined to climb a mountain. This mountain was at a dis- 
tance. The path ascended gradually to the foot of the mountain. The 
path lay beside a mossy brook. It was a beautiful brook. Fern-moss 
covered its sides. Fern-moss covered the rocks beside the path. We 
traveled nearly a mile. We then came to a spring of water. We stopped 
at the spring to eat our lunch. We were very thirsty. The water was 



98 VERBS.— TENSE. 

very cold. The water was very refreshing. We resumed our journey. 
We soon reached the foot of the mountain. We ascended to the top. 
The view was grand, beautiful, indescribable. Mountain piled on mount- 
ain in one direction. Valley and hill spread out in another. We returned 
by the same path. The mossy brook was still very beautiful. It was very 
beautiful when we went. Our tramp was a delightful one. 



LXXXIH.— VERBS.— TENSE. 

297. Most verbs express action. All actions take place at 
some time. Time is naturally separated into three great divis- 
ions— present time, past time, and future time. 

Direction —Notice carefully the time expressed by the verb in each of 
the following sentences : 

1. This boy writes carefully. 

2. That boy wrote carefully. 

3. I will write carefully. 

4. You shall write carefully. 

298. Each of these four sentences contains a different form 
of the verb write. 

The form writes, in 1, shows that the boy is noiv performing the act ; 
therefore writes denotes present time. 

The form wrote, in 2, shows that the act is finished ; therefore wrote 
denotes past time. 

The forms will write and shall write, in 3 and 4, show that the acts 
are yet to be performed ; therefore these two verbs express future time. 

299. In 3, the verb will is used with write to help express 
future time, and the two verbs combined in this way form one 
verb. In 4, the verb shall is used for the same purpose. 

300. Shall and ivill used in this way are called auxiliary 
verbs, because auxiliary means helping. 

301. Of these two verbs will write and shall write, write 
is the principal part in each, shall and will being auxiliaries. 

302. In grammar, the time of an action or event is called 
tense. Tense means time. 



VERBS.— TENSE. 99 

303. Tense is the grammatical form of a verb which dis- 
tinguishes the time of an action or event. 

304. The present tense expresses the action as now 
taking place. 

305. The past tense expresses the action as finished and 
past. 

306. The future tense expresses the action as yet to be 
performed. 

Questions. — 1. What are the three principal divisions of time? 2. 
When does a verb express present time ? 8. Past time ? 4. Future time ? 
5. What name is given to will and shall in the verbs will see and shall 
see ? 6. In grammar, what term is used to mean time ? 7. Can a verb be 
composed of more than one word 1 8. What is tense ? 9. Present tense ? 
10. Past tense? 11. Future tense? 12. What time does the form write 
show? 13. Wrote ? 14. Shall write* 



LXXXIV.-TENSE. 

307. Definition. — A verb is a ivord used to assert some- 
thing of its subject. 

Direction. — Mention the tense of the verb in each of the following sen- 
tences. Also analyze and parse : 

1. The army lustily cheered their leader. 

2. The merry girls gathered some pretty wild flowers. 

3. The policeman soon dispersed the noisy crowd. 

4. That lazy boy works very slowly. 

5. The young man soon squandered his father's property. 

6. Twenty-four girls know this lesson perfectly. 

7. Those girls shall go first. 

8. The boys will know their lessons to-morrow. 

9. The west wind blew gently. 

10. The rain will cease soon. 

11, This extremely hot weather will produce much sickness. 

Direction. — Give the tense of each verb in these eleven sentences, and 
mention the principal part and the auxiliary of each verb in the future 
tense, according to the following model : 



100 



VERBS.— TENSE. 



308. Model. — Cheered, in 1, is a transitive verb in the past tense. 
Works, in 4, is an intransitive verb in the present tense. Will know, in 
8, is a transitive verb in the future tense ; principal part know, auxiliary, 
will [300, 301]. 

Direction. — Complete the following sentences by inserting the correct 
tense forms of the verbs come, see, sit, give, go, return, using them in 
the order here given : 

1. John home yesterday. 

2. I him once last week. 

3. I with the driver yes- 

terday. 



me a knife last 



4. Father — 

week. 

5. I to school to-morrow. 

6. They next week. 



LXXXV.-TENSE. 

Direction. — The teacher will dictate the present tense of the following 
verbs, and require pupils to give the past tense. 

309. Some of the verbs in the following list have two forms 
in the past tense; both forms are correct, but the one first 
given is preferable in each instance. We may say, " I aivoke 
early," or " I awaked early " ; but " I aivoke early " is preferable. 
The present-tense form of a verb is called the verb-root. 



SENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


Awake, 


awoke (awaked). 


Go, 


went. 


Blame, 


blamed. 


Have, 


had. 


Bleed, 


bled. 


Lie (to recline), 


lay. 


Bring, 


brought. 


Lay (to place), 


laid. 


Build, 


built (builded). 


Lose, 


lost. 


Burn, 


burned (burnt). 


Light, 


lighted (lit). 


Buy, 


bought. 


Ring, 


rang (rung). 


Catch, 


caught. 


Run, 


ran (run). 


Come, 


came. 


See, 


saw. 


Big, 


dug (digged). 


Sit (to rest), 


sat. 


Do, 


did. 


Set (to place), 


set. 


Draw, 


drew. 


Slip, 


slipped. 


Dream, 


dreamed (dreamt). 


Sing, 


sang (sung). 


Drink, 


drank. 


Spill, 


spilled (spilt). 


Eat, 


ate. 


Spoil, 


spoiled (spoilt). 


Freeze, 


froze. 


Throw, 


threw. 



VERBS.— NUMBER. 101 

310. Do (also does) and its past tense did, are used as 
auxiliaries in emphatic statements, and also in asking questions ; 
as, "I do try" " Does he try?" in the present tense, and "He 
did try" in the past tense. Try is the simple form of the 
present tense, and do try, the compound form, 

1. I generally fail, but I do try. 

2. John hesitated, but he did go finally. 

3. The man means well, but he does make such absurd remarks. 

4. That horse does not* travel very fast. 

5. How do blacksmiths weld iron? 

6. How does the patient feel to-day? 

7. When did Columbus discover America? 

Questions.— 1. What is the verb in sentence 1 ? 2. How is it formed ? 
3. What is the verb in 2 ? 4. How is it formed ? 5. How are the verbs 
formed in 5, 6, and 7. 6. Mention the tense of the verb in each of the 
preceding sentences. 7. Read the first four of these sentences, using the 
simple form of the verb, not changing the tense. 

LXXXVI.— NUMBER OF VERBS.— S FORMS. 

311. Verbs have number forms showing their use with 
singular and plural subjects ; as, 

1. The boy writes. 2. The boys write. 

3. The boy pushes. 4. The boys push. 

5. The girl plays. 6. The girls play. 

7. She plays. 8. They play. 

9. He writes. 10. They write. 

11. I write. 12. We write. 

Questions. — 1. Is the subject, in sentence 1, singular or plural? In 
3 ? In 5 ? In 7 ? In 9 ? 2. With what letter does the verb end in each 
of these five sentences ? 3. Tell whether the subject is singular or plural 
in each of sentences 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12. 4. Does the verb end in s in 
either of these six sentences ? 

Explanation. — By examining these twelve sentences we see that the 
verb-root adds s, only when the subject is singular. We see, too, that 

* The adverb not often stands between the principal part of the verb and its 
auxiliary. In interrogative sentences the subject often stands between the verb and 
its auxiliary, as in 5, 6, and 7 [117]. 



102 VERBS.— NUMBER. 

when the subject is plural, and also when I is the subject, no s is added 
to the verb-root. 

rt - rt « * ( s or es added to a noun makes it plural. 

312. S-torm. — •< , -^ ^ j • f 

. ( a verb with s or es added, is singular. 

Writes, pushes, and plays are, therefore, singular forms of the verb, 
and they must be used with singular subjects. 

313. A verb in the present tense must be in the s-form 
when used with any singular subject except /. Euphony 
requires that plural subjects should reject the s-form of the 
verb. 

There are, then, two forms of the simple verb in the present tense — 
the s-form, which is always singular, and the form without the s. This 
latter form is plural except in its use with the pronoun / as its subject ; 
then it is called the singular first-person form, as in sentence 11 [311]. 
It follows, then, that the singular form of a verb must be used with a 
singular subject, and the plural form with a plural subject. 

314. Verbs in the past tense have no s-form. The same 
form is used with both singular and plural subjects ; as, " I 
played," " He played," " You played," " We played," " They 
played." 

315. Verbs in the future tense have no s-form, the same 
form being used with both singular and plural subjects ; as, 
" He will go," " They will go." 

Questions. — 1. Why is the form writes used in sentence If 2. The 
form write in 2? 3. Plays in 5? 4. Play in 6? 5. Why is the form 
write used in 11 % 6. Which form of a verb in the present tense is always 
singular % 7. How many forms has a verb in the present tense % 8. Past 
tense ? 9. What is the singular first-person form of a verb in the present 
tense % 

LXXXVII.-SYNTHESIS.— AUTOBIOGRAPHY. 

316. Direction. — Combine into a connected narrative by weaving two 
or more questions and answers into 'one sentence. The teacher should 
prepare as many exercises of this and of other kinds as are needful to 
develop in the pupil skill in the use of language. 



VERBS.— A GREEMENT. 103 

Where do you live ? In Brooklyn, N. Y. What school do you attend ? 
Grammar School No. 90. How long have you attended this school? 
Nearly four years. Where do you go during vacation? Sometimes to 
the White Mountains. Sometimes to the Adirondacks. Have you been 
to the top of Mount Washington ? Yes, once last year, and once the year 
before. By what route did you go up ? Once by the mountain railroad and 
once by the carriage route. Do these routes approach the top from the same 
side of the mountain ? They approach from opposite sides. What was 
the state of the atmosphere ? It was clear and cool last year. Could you 
see any part of the State of Maine ? Yes, and also a part of Vermont and 
Massachusetts. Where do you expect to go next vacation % Father thinks 
strongly of going to Mount Desert Island. Where is this island situated ? 
Near the coast of Maine. Which summer resort on this island do you like 
best. South West Harbor. Why do you like this place better than Bar 
Harbor? Because it is more quiet. Because a breeze reaches there from 
almost every direction, making it cooler. Do you intend to become a 
teacher? Yes, if father and mother will consent. Why do you wish to 
teach ? Because I think I shall like it. 



IiXXXVm.— AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. 

Direction. — Justify the use of the form of the verb in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences; then change each subject from singular to plural, or 
from plural to singular, and make the necessary change in the verb, but 
do not change its tense. Also make any necessary change in the form of 
any adjective to suit the change in the subject that it modifies : 

1. The bee gathers honey. 5. I eat too rapidly. 

2. Those* children laugh heartily. 6. She recites correctly. 

3. That man acts strangely. 7. You sew very neatly. 

4. That boy walks rapidly. 8. He deals honestly. 

Direction. — Complete the following sentences by inserting the present- 
tense form of some verb in each, that will properly agree with its subject, 
giving the reason for each insertion : 

1. Hogs acorns. 4. The ox his cud. 

2. The boys marbles here. 5. That child too much noise. 

3. All people mistakes 6. Some rivers* in ray crooked 

sometimes. channels. 

* The adjective this has a plural these ; that, a plural those. This and that are 
used only with singular nouns ; these and those, only with plural nouns. 



104 VERBS.— A GREEMENT. 

317. Besides do* does, did, shall, and will, we often use as 
auxiliaries have, has, had, may, can, must, might, could, would, 
and should — has and does being singular forms ; as, 

1. Mary has learned her lesson. 3. We have seen the new bridge. 

2. James does not know his lesson. 4. We might -have seen it before. 

Explanation. — These words in italics in each sentence form one verb. 
In sentence 3, bridge is the object of the verb have seen, and (in 4) it is 
the object of the verb might have seen. Might have is the auxiliary, and 
seen the principal part of the verb. 

Direction. — distinguish the verbs in the following sentences, and men- 
tion the auxiliaries and principal part in each. Pupils should not now be 
required to give the tense of the compound forms, except of those having 
shall and will as auxiliaries. These compound forms are used alike with 
singular and plural subjects. Analyze each sentence : 

1. The senator has made an excellent speech. 

2. We might have lost this train. 

3. My brother may have arrived to-day. 

4. The sheriff should have arrested the thief. 



LXXXIX.-AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. 

318. We have seen that the singular form of a verb must be used 
with a singular subject, and that the plural form of a verb must be used 
with a plural subject [313] ; as, 

1. That swan swims gracefully. 

2. Those swans swim gracefully. 

319. Yon is always plural in its grammatical relations in 
a sentence, although often used in speaking to one person 

[./Co 4 J 5 as ? 1. You often make mistakes. 

2. You have upset the ink-stand. 

320. It has been shown [313] that I (although singular), when used 
as a subject, never takes the singular s-form of the verb, but, instead, 
takes the singular first-person form. This form is also used with plural 
subjects; as, 

* Do, does, did, and have, has, had, are often used as principal verbs as well as 
for auxiliaries. 



VERBS.— A GREEMENT. 105 

1. I generally eat too fast. 

2. He generally eats too fast. 

3. 1 generally eats too fast [incorrect]. 
Explanation. — Sentence 3 is incorrect, for, although / and eats are 

both singular, and so agree in number, yet they do not agree in person 
because eats is not the singular first-person form [313]. In 2, he and 
eats agree in both person and number. 

321. We see, then, that a verb has two different forms that 
must be considered in its use with a subject on account of 
person and number. 

322. When the proper form of a verb is used with its subject, such a 
a verb is said to agree with its subject in person and number. 

323. Rule for Construction. — A verb must agree with its 
subject in person and number. 

Sentences for Parsing. 

1. He generally eats too fast. 5. You shall surely go. 

2. You made too much noise. 6. I rise very early. 

3. I always eat breakfast early. 7. She feels her loss keenly. 

4. The rain ivill soon cease. 8. The fire burns brightly. 

324. Parsing Models. — Eats is an intransitive verb in the present tense, 
and agrees with its subject he in the third person and singular number [323]. 

Made is a transitive verb in the past tense, and agrees with its subject 
you in the second person and plural number [323, 234]. 

Eat is a transitive verb in the present tense, and agrees with its sub- 
ject / in the first person, singular number [323, 313]. 

Will cease is an intransitive verb in the future tense — principal part 
cease, auxiliary will — and agrees with its subject rain in the third person 
and singular number [323]. 

Direction.— Parse the verbs (and other words) in the last four sentences. 

Questions. — 1. In what respects must a verb agree with its subject? 
2. What form of a verb is always singular? 3. What disagreement is 
there between verb and subject in each of these sentences — " We keeps 
good groceries," " 1 keeps good groceries " ? 4. When does a verb agree 
with its subject in person and number? 5. What is the rule for the agree- 
ment of verb and subject ? 6. Which form of the verb must be used with 
the pronoun / as a subject ? Which form with you as a subject ? 
8 



106 COMPOUND SUBJECT. 

XC- SUBJECTS CONNECTED BY "AND." 

325. A subject is sometimes plural in meaning when it is 
not plural in form [222]. When a subject is plural in mean- 
ing its verb must be plural. 

326. Two or more singular subjects taken jointly (con- 
nected by and) form a compound subject whose meaning is 
generally plural. The assertion is made of all the subjects ; as, 

1. William and Mary row the boat steadily. 

2. William, Mary, and Susan row the boat steadily. 

327. Rule for Construction. — Two or more singular sub- 
jects connected by and, when they convey a plural meaning, 
require a plural verb. 

328. When a subject is singular in meaning its verb must 
also be singular. 

329. Sometimes two or more singular subjects connected by and are 
only different names for the same person or thing. Such a compound 
subject has a singular meaning and requires a singular verb, which agrees 
with each subject separately ; as, 

1. That eminent philosopher and poet has many admirers. 

2. That eminent scholar and judicious critic writes the purest English. 

330. The verbs am, is, and tuas are singular forms [200], 
and should be used with singular subjects in speaking and 
writing. Are and tvere are plural forms, and should be used 
with plural subjects [201]. 

Direction. — Use the correct form of one of the verbs just mentioned in 
each blank space in the following sentences : 

1. The boys in a hurry. 5. I going to New York. 

2. Mary and Susan here yesterday. 6. She here last month. 

3. he at the fair last week? 7. you ready? 

4. he and John here yesterday 1 8. There Mary and Paul. 

331. When two or more singular subjects are so connected that the 
verb evidently agrees with each subject separately, or with one to the 
exclusion of the others, or when they are preceded by each, every, or no, a 
singular verb is required ; as, 



COMPOUND SUBJECT. 107 

1. His wit pleases me, his frankness, his courtesy. 

2. John, and also James, attends school. 

3. John, as well as James, attends school. 

4. John, and not James, attends school. 

^ 5. Every tempest and every dew-drop has its mission. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, the singular verb pleases is correctly 
used, although there are three subjects connected by and [understood]. 
This manner of construction is used for the sake of force, or emphasis, 
and the verb is understood to each of the subjects frankness and courtesy. 
In 4, it is evident that attends agrees with John to the exclusion of James 
(only one person attends). "John, and not James, attends " = John at- 
tends, and James attends not. 

Questions. — 1. What kind of subjects require plural verbs ? 2. When 
is a compound subject plural % 3. When do two or more singular subjects 
connected by and convey a singular meaning? 4. Tell which of these 
verbs are singular : am, are, is, was, were. 5. What kind of subjects are 
plural in meaning when they are not plural in form [326, 222] % 



XCI.— SUBJECTS CONNECTED BY "OR" OR 'NOR." 

332. Two or more singular subjects connected by or or 
nor form a compound subject whose meaning is singular. 
The assertion is made of each subject separately ; as, 

1. He or his brother has the book. 

2. He or his brother or his sister has the book. 

3. He or his brother have the book [incorrect — why?]. 

333. Rule for Construction. — Two or more singular subjects 
connected by or or nor have a singular meaning and require 
a singular verb. 

The different parts of a compound subject are taken separately [331] 
in their use with a verb when they are connected by or, nor, and also, 
and too, and not, but not, if not, as well as. 

334. A collective noun in its singular form is singular in 
meaning when the collection is spoken of as a whole. Such a 
noun when used as a subject requires a singular verb ; as, 

1. That choir [as a body] sings well. 



108 COMPOUND SUBJECT. 

But when the individuals of the collection are in the mind 
of the speaker or writer, such a noun is plural in meaning and 
requires a plural verb ; as, 

2. The choir [as individuals] respect their leader. 

335. When a collective noun, used as a subject, is preceded by this, 
that, each, every, or no, reference is made to the collection as one body. 

Direction. — Decide which of the two verb forms, in brackets, in the 
following sentences, is the correct one, and give the reason for your 
decision : 

1. Patience and diligence [remove or removes] mountains. 

2. My poverty, but not my will [consent or consents]. 

3. That able scholar and critic [have or has] a valuable library. 

4. Each man, each woman, each child [know or knows] the hour. 

5. Thy goodness [soothes or soothe] thy tenderness, and love. 

6. All work and no play [make or makes] Jack a dull boy. 

7. The crime, not the scaffold, [make or makes] the shame. 

8. Each village and hamlet [has or have] their petty chief. 

9. The father, as well as the son [enjoy or enjoys] the sport. 

10. Every congregation [like or likes] their own minister best. 

11. The Senate [have or has] only one session to-day. 

XCII.— COMPOSITION LESSON. 

336. Direction. — Copy the first paragraph and place periods and in- 
terrogation points where they belong. The remaining paragraphs should 
be used by giving at least one each week for punctuation. 

Exercises in Punctuation. 

1. If the man should leap to the pavement below he would be in- 
stantly killed he could not go back already the smoke and heat and fire 
were close upon him despair was in his face what could he do the firemen 
quickly brought ladders but they were too short the longest of them 
would not reach half the distance it seemed as if nothing could save him 
he was finally rescued by the efforts of a colored boy do you not think 
this boy was brave 

2. In the early days of Massachusetts, when a man bought a coat, he 
perhaps exchanged a bear-skin for it if he wished for a barrel of molasses 
he might purchase it with a, pile of pine boards musket-bullets were used 



NATURAL ORDER OF WORDS. 109 

instead of farthings the indians had a sort of money called wampum 
which was made of clam-shells this strange sort of specie was taken in 
payment of debts by the settlers bank-bills had never been heard of 

3. There once lived in France an old tinker he used to travel about 
the country, mending clocks and umbrellas this he had done for many 
years, and people used to expect him when his regular time came round 
at last the old man became too old to work, and finally died leaving his 
cane and bundle to his proud nephew, who would not accept the legacy 
when he afterward learned that the hollow cane contained bank-notes to 
the value of several thousands of dollars he repented of his folly, but it 
was too late. 



XCin.— NATURAL ORDER OF WORDS. 

337. Most of the sentences used so far have been declara- 
tive. The natural order of the parts of a declarative sentence 
is : first, the subject, then the predicate verb followed by its 
complement. An adjective precedes its noun. An adverb 
stands before or after the verb, according to the sense or 
sound ; and when it follows a transitive verb it generally fol- 
lows the object also. 

1. Cortes conquered Mexico. 

2. Some flowers bloom early, 

3. Industrious people generally succeed. 

4. Thrifty trees produce fruit abundantly. 

338. Position of Adjectives. — Adjectives naturally precede 
their nouns, yet they often follow them, especially in poetry ; 

as, 

1. Tobacco makes boys sick. 3. Hard work makes people weary. 

2. Mary found the fawn asleep, 4. Attention held them mute. 

5. The silent grove, the solemn shade, 
Proclaim the power divine. 

339. Position of Adverbs. — An adverb generally either pre- 
cedes or follows the verb according to the sound ; but for the 
sake of emphasis it is often placed at the beginning of a sen- 
tence. It is frequently placed between an auxiliary and the 
principal part of a verb ; as, 



HO RHETORICAL ORDER OF WORDS. 

1. Strong ships sometimes sink. 

2. Some pupils learn rapidly. 

3. Carefully she lifted the sleepy child. 

4. The gardener planted his potatoes early. 

5. The farmer planted his early potatoes late. 

6. You should always obey your parents. 

Direction. — Analyze the last six sentences in this lesson, and describe 
the position of each adverb. Describe the position of each adjective in 
all the sentences in this lesson, and mention the noun to which each 
adjective refers. 

Questions. — 1. What is the natural order of the parts of a sentence ? 
2. What is the position of the adverb in 1 of the last set of sentences ? In 
3! In 4? 3. In each of the other sentences? 4. What is the natural 
position of an adjective? 5. What other position may it occupy? 



XCIV.— RHETORICAL. ARRANGEMENT. 

340. Position of the Subject. — Although the subject natu- 
rally precedes the verb, yet sentences are not always arranged 
in this way. We sometimes place first that which strikes us 
most forcibly, or that which we wish to make most impres- 
sive ; as, 

1. Down fell the whole platform. 

It is plain, from this sentence, that the falling was uppermost in the 
mind of the beholder — not the platform. Arranged in the natural order 
of its parts, the sentence is much less expressive ; as, 

2. The whole platform fell down. 

341. Position of the Object. — Sometimes the object stands 
between the subject and its verb, and sometimes it precedes 
both subject and verb ; as, 

1. "No busy hand the food prepares, 

No soothing voice sweet comfort gives." 

2. A lovelier scene I never saw. 

342. This arrangement of the parts of a sentence out of 
their natural order is called the inverted or rhetorical order 
of words. It is also sometimes called transposed order. Even 



ANALYTICAL PARSING. HI 

when an adverb introduces a sentence the order is slightly 
inverted. 

Direction.— Mention the words that are out of their natural order in 
the preceding sentences, and also in those following. Change rhetorical 
to natural order and notice the loss in force and beauty. Analyze and 

parse : 

1. There* stood the poor old man. 

2. Slowly and solemnly the soldiers left the grave. 

3. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 

4. No busy steps the grass-grown garden trod. 

5. Full quickly flew the morning hours. 

6. The stormy sea I do not fear. 

7. So madly rushed the fiery steeds. 

8. The bribe I scorn, and you I despise. 

9. The rod I brought, but I forgot the bait. 

Questions. — 1. What two positions may a subject occupy in a sentenced 
2. What three positions may an object complement occupy ? 3. What do 
you understand by rhetorical order? 4. When is a sentence inverted? 



XCV.-ANALYTICAL PARSING. 

343. To Teachers. — The regular routine of analysis and parsing may 
be varied by using a combination of these two exercises, thus directing 
attention more especially to the structure of sentences and to the forms 
of the words that compose them [244 f. n.]. 

1. They soon found him. 

344. Model. — This sentence is simple, declarative, direct,]- the subject 
preceding its predicate-verb found. The subject they is properly used in 
the nominative form. Soon modifies the verb found. Found is in the 
past tense form to express past time. The object complement him has 
the proper object form. 

2. So madly rushed the fiery steeds. 

345. Model. — This sentence is simple, declarative, inverted, the predi- 
cate-verb rushed standing before its subject steeds. The adverb so modifies 

* When the adverb there introduces a sentence, the subject follows the verb. 

f When a sentence is arranged in the natural order of subject, verb, and object, 
it may be called direct. But when either of these parts is out of its natural order, 
the sentence is said to be inverted [342]. 



112 INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

the adverb madly. Madly has the proper adverbial form to modify the 
verb rushed [from adj. mad], Hushed has the past tense form to express 
past time. The adjectives the and fiery modify the noun steeds. Steeds 
is the name form, and is properly used as a subject [229]. 

8. The stormy sea I do not fear. 

346. Model. — This sentence is simple, declarative, inverted, the object 
complement sea standing before the predicate-verb fear. The adjectives 
the and stormy modify the noun sea. Sea is the proper form for the 
object complement, because a noun has no form for an object different 
from the subject form. The subject / has the proper nominative form. 
The predicate- verb do fear is used in the emphatic present tense form to 
express present time. The negative adverb not modifies do fear. 

4. Me he released, but him he hanged. 

347. Model. — This sentence is compound, declarative, inverted in both 
members, the object in each standing before the predicate- verb. The 
object complement me has the proper object form, and the subject he 
the proper nominative form. The verb released is used in the past tense 
form to express past time. The conjunction but connects the two mem- 
bers. In the second member, the object complement him has the proper 
object form, and the subject he has the proper subject form. 

XCVI.— INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

1. Has John any money? 

2. Will Mary return soon? 

3. Do you like this cold weather? 

Questions. — 1. Are these declarative sentences? 2. What are they? 3. 
What is the subject in 1 ? 4. What is its position? 5. What is the object? 
6. What is the subject in 2 ? 7. What is its position ? 8. What is the sub- 
ject in 3 ? 9. What is its position [117] ? 

348. The subject in an interrogative sentence generally fol- 
lows the predicate-verb, or stands between the principal part of 
the verb and its auxiliary. 

Direction. — Justify the use of the verb in the following sentences, and 
change the declarative sentences to the interrogative form; also change 
the interrogative sentences to declarative. Analyze and parse after read- 
ing the explanation below : 



REVIEW BY SENTENCES. 113 

1. Some people have very poor memories. 

2. The builder will soon finish the house. 

3. Has Sarah's brother my cloak and umbrella 1 

4. Whose boat did you borrow? 

5. What book has mother? 
(}. Which boy will open the window? 

7. When will John's father return? 

8. How will the miner crush the quartz? 

9. Why did you start so soon? 
Explanation. — Whose, what, and which, in 4, 5, and 6, are interroga- 
tive adjectives, because they are used in asking questions, as well as to 
modify the nouns with which they are used. When, how, and why, in 7, 
8, and 9, are interrogative adverbs, because they are adverbs used in asking 
questions, as well as to modify the verbs in the sentences in which they 
are used. 

349. Definition.— An interrogative adjective is an ad- 
jective used in asking a question. 

The interrogative adjectives are whose, what, and which. 

350. Definition. — An interrogative adverb is an adverb 
used in asking a question. 

The interrogative adverbs are how, where, when, and why. 

Questions. — 1. What is an interrogative adjective % 2. Repeat the three 
interrogative adjectives. 3. What is an interrogative adverb ? 4. Repeat 
them. 5. How do you parse an interrogative adjective [see explanation] ? 
6. How do you parse interrogative adverbs % 

XCVn.-REVIEW BY SENTENCES. 

351. The order and the extent of progress in the develop- 
ment of the sentence, so far, are seen at a glance by observing 
the following series of sentences : 

1. Birds sing. [Simple subject and predicate.] 

2. Little birds sing. [Adjective element.] 

3. Little birds sing sweetly. [Adverbial element.] 

4. Little birds sing very sweetly. [Secondary modifier.] 

5. A furious storm arose, but the pilot still slept. [Conjunction and 

compound sentence.] 



114 REVIEW BY SENTENCES. 

6. The early bird catches the worm. [Object complement.] 

7. That ugly little dog bit James severely. [Proper noun.] 

8. The boblincoln lives a merry life. [Object of kindred meaning.] 

9. The fisherman rowed rapidly the boat. [Wrong position of ad- 

verbs.] 

10. / caught a fine trout yesterday. [General use of pronouns. 1 

11. Charles and Henry rowed the boat. [Condensed compound.] 

12. The farmer fed the cows and horses. [Objects connected.] 

13. The captain lost a large and valuable cargo. [Adj. con.] 

14. The man worked faithfully and well. [Adverbs connected.] 

15. William harnessed and drove the team. [Verbs connected.] 

16. The ice-house stands alone. [Compound word.] 

17. The moon takes up her wondrous tale. .[Gender, personification, 

person, number, case.] 

18. She soiled her new dress and her mother scolded her. [Personal 

pronoun.] 

19. The atmosphere surrounds the earth. [Tense, present.] 

20. Benjamin Franklin learned a trade. [Tense, past.] 

21. The carpenter will finish the house soon. [Tense, future.] 

22. These boys swim nicely. That boy swims nicely. [Number of 

verbs.] 

23. Oxen chew [not chews] the cud. [Agreement of verb with subject.] 

24. No home have J. [Natural and rhetorical order of words.] 

25. Opium makes people dull. [Position of adjectives.] 

26. Will you pass the bread? [Interrogative sentence.] 

27. Which road shall we take? [Interrogative adjective.] 

28. When did you arrive? [Interrogative adverb.] 

Direction. — These sentences, illustrating the progress of the learner, 
should be given as review lessons in analysis and parsing to test his 
knowledge, before taking up prepositions and prepositional phrases. 



XCVIII.-SYNTHESIS. 

352. Direction. — Combine the following into a connected description, 
using as connectives therefore in the section marked 1 ; and in part 2 ; 
so and that in part 3, striking out words in italics; which and and in 
part 4 ; as and as in the third and fourth lines of part 5 ; through which 
in 6 ; but in 7 and 8 ; any connective may be repeated and unnecessary 
words may be omitted, etc. 



COMPOSITION. 115 

THE ELEPHANT. 

1. The elephant is a large animal. 
He is a clumsy animal. 

He makes a very awkward appearance in traveling. 

2. His neck is short and thick. 
He has a large head. 

He has a heavy head. 

He has a large, heavy body. 

He has stout legs. 

3. His head and body are very heavy. 

On this account they require a short neck and stout legs to 
support them. 

4. He has not a nose. 

He has a long, muscular arm instead. 

His arm is called a trunk. 

He uses this trunk like an arm and hand. 

He uses it for passing all kinds of food into his mouth. 

He uses it for other purposes. 

5. At the end of the trunk is a curious lip-shaped muscle. 
This muscle is called a finger. 

With this finger he can pick up very small objects. 
He can pick up even a pin. 

6. The nostrils are near this finger. 
He breathes through these nostrils. 

7. He has long, heavy tusks. 
They are of solid ivory. 

He has them in a wild state. 

They are sawed off. 

This is done when he is captured. 

8. The elephant is a docile animal. 
He is very much so. 

He sometimes becomes unmanageable. 
He becomes so when he is enraged. 

Remark. — In the composition lessons already given, various methods 
of supplying material for thought have been suggested. More material of 
the same kind or of something different, that pupils can comprehend, 
should be furnished. 



116 PREPOSITIONS. 

XCIX.— PREPOSITIONS. 

353. Adjectives and adverbs are single words, and are there- 
fore called wor^-modifiers. But single words are not always 
sufficient to express adjective and adverbial ideas. In the fol- 
lowing sentences, another kind of modifier is used with which 
we can often express what we wish to say more smoothly and 
accurately than can be done by single words ; as, 

1. Industrious men labor patiently. 

2. Men of industry labor with patience. 

3. A man of wisdom will act with prudence. 

4. The people listened with close attention. 

5. The king wore a crown of gold. 

6. The soldiers fought with great bravery. 

7. Mary's father waited for her. 

Explanation. — In sentence 2, the words of industry express the same 
idea as the single word industrious in 1 ; therefore the words of industry, 
taken as a whole, have an adjective use and modify the noun men. The 
words with patience, in 2, are used in place of patiently in 1 ; therefore, 
taken together, they modify the verb labor like an adverb. 

354. These groups of words are called phrases, and the words of, 
with, and for (each forming a part of a phrase), are called prepositions,* 
because each has a position before the noun or pronoun in the phrase. 

Direction. — In the seven preceding sentences, mention each word that 
is modified by a phrase, and tell whether such phrase performs an ad- 
jective or an adverbial office. Substitute a single word for each phrase, 
except for that in the last sentence. 

355. Definition. — A phrase is any group of words not con- 
taining a verb and its subject, which, taken as a whole, per- 
forms the office of a single word. 

356. The noun or pronoun following a preposition is called the 
object of the preposition, and it must be in the objective case, as in sen- 
tence 7. 

357. Rule for Construction. — A noun or a pronoun which 
is the object of a preposition must be in the objective case. 

* Preposition means placed before (Latin pre = before ; positus « placed). 



PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. 117 

Questions. — 1. In sentence 3, which phrase performs an adjective office, 
and why! 2. An adverbial office, and why? 3. What part of the phrase 
is prudence I 4. What part of speech is with, is of, is for 1 5. Of what 
is the phrase composed in sentence 4 f 6. Why is her (in 7) used instead 
of she f 7. What is a phrase ? 8. Which case of a pronoun must be used 
as the object of a preposition ? 9. Mention the preposition and its object 
in each phrase in these seven sentences. 



C.-PREPOSITTONAL PHRASE. 

358. Although a single word may often be substituted for a phrase, 
yet it often happens that no single word can be thus substituted ; and this 
is true of the phrases in 3 to 8, inclusive, of the following sentences. 
Each phrase, however, performs the office of an adjective or of an adverb : 

1. All men admire an act of generosity. 

2. Groves of oranges lined the banks of the river. 

3. The merchant hastened to Chicago. 

4. The bright stars shone above us. 

5. A man with a long, white beard walked slowly over the lawn. 

6. The book on the table belongs to me. 

7. The roses by my ivindow bloom in the spring. 

8. Heaven's light shone on their path. 

9. The light of heaven shone on their path. 

10. The light of the sun shone through my window. 

Remark. — The prepositions to, above, over, by, in, on, and through, 
found in this lesson, do not occur in the previous one. 

Direction. — Mention the word modified by each phrase in these ten 
sentences ; mention the office of each phrase ; the preposition and object 
in each, and the modifiers of the object. For the phrases in the first two 
sentences, substitute adjective words. 

Explanation. — The preposition on (in 6) connects its object table with 
the noun book, and also shows the relation of place between them. The 
book is on the table— that is its position, or place. The preposition to (in 
sentence 3) shows the relation of direction between hastened and Chicago. 
In 9, of shows the relation of possession, and the phrase of heaven is 
used in place of the possessive noun heaverts. 

359. The possessive case of a noun may often be more 
smoothly expressed by using the noun without the possessive 



118 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



sign, and placing the preposition of before it. Socrates's death 
is not so smooth an expression as the death of Socrates. 

Direction. — Write five sentences containing nouns in the possessive 
case ; then rewrite them and express possession by using the preposition 
of with an object. Define a phrase. 

360. Definition. — A prepositional phrase is a group of 
words formed by a preposition and its object. 

361. Definition. — A preposition is a connective word in a 
phrase showing the relation of its object to the word which the 
phrase modifies. 

362. A preposition connects the principal word [object] in 
its phrase to the word which the phrase modifies, and also 
shows the relation existing between the words so connected. 

In the sentence, " Roses grow in the garden," in shows the relation of 
place between grow and garden. The two words grow and garden in 
this sentence are called the terms of relation, grow being the antecedent 
term, and garden the subsequent term. 



List of the Principal Prepositions. 



aboard, 


below, 


for, 


throughout, 


about, 


beneath, 


from, 


till, 


above, 


beside, 


in, 


to, 


across, 


besides, 


into, 


toward, 


after, 


between, 


of, 


towards, 


against, 


betwixt, 


off, 


under, 


along, 


beyond, 


on, 


underneath, 


amid, amidst, 


but (except), 


over, 


until, 


among, amongst, 


by, 


past, 


unto, 


around, 


concerning, 


round, 


up, 


at, 


down, 


regarding, 


upon, 


athwart, 


during, 


save, 


with, 


before, 


ere, 


since, 


within, 


behind, 


except, 


through, 


without. 



Questions. — 1. What is a phrase % 2. What is a prepositional phrase? 
3. What is a preposition ? 4. What twofold office does a preposition per- 
form ? 5. What is the use of a prepositional phrase in a sentence ? 6. Of 



ANALYSIS. 119 

what is a prepositional phrase composed ? 7. What is the principal word 
in a prepositional phrase ? 8. What is the connective ? 9. To what does 
a preposition connect its object? 10. Which term of relation is its object? 
11. What is the other term of relation called? 12. What part of speech 
shows the relation existing between these two terms % 13. Can a single 
word be substituted for a phrase in every instance? 14. Wliat relation 
does on show, in " The book lies on the table " % 15. In how many ways 
may possession^ be indicated in regard to a noun ? 16. Which prepositions 
begin with a, b, c, d. e, f, i, o, p, r, s, t, u, w% 17. What other part of 
speech is a connective ? 



CI.— OFFICE OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

363. The word prepositional refers only to the form of a 
phrase ; the office of a prepositional phrase is either adverb- 
ial or adjective. 

364. A prepositional phrase, when it is adverbial, is not 
always placed next to the word that it modifies. It is some- 
times placed after, and sometimes before it, and often it is 
considerably removed from it. A prepositional phrase per- 
forming an adjective office stands next to its noun. 

Direction. — Determine whether the phrases in the following sentences 
are adjective or adverbial in office; then analyze each sentence according 
to the model given below : 

1. The breath of autumn fell upon the woods. 

2. The farmer should have hitched his horse to the stone post. 

3. We have seen some beautiful flowers in this meadow. 

4. The two boys carried the basket of apples between them. 

5. In the spring the flowers will bloom. 

6. John has caught a very large crab with a spear. 

7. We took our light baggage with us. 

8. James and John walked rapidly through the park. 

9. We passed through Newark and Elizabeth." 

10. I took the book off the table. 

11. The dingy walls of the rude sea-front gradually faded from our 

sight. 

* A preposition may, like a verb, have a compound object. 



120 COMPOSITION. 

Model for Analysis. 
1. "A long train of cars passed slowly over a very high bridge." 

365. This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is " A 
long train of cars." The entire predicate is " passed slowly over a very 
high bridge." The simple subject train is modified by the adjectives a 
and long, and also by the prepositional phrase " of cars." The predicate- 
verb passed is modified by the adverb slowly, and also by the preposi- 
tional phrase "over a very high bridge." In the phrase "of cars" the 
principal word is the object cars. In the phrase "over a very high 
bridge,", the principal word is the object bridge, which is modified by the 
adjectives a and high, and high is, itself, modified by the adverb very. 

Questions. — 1. Why are prepositional phrases used ? 2. What two 
offices do they perform ? 3. What is their position in a sentence ? 4. 
What two offices does a preposition perform ? 5. Name the two terms of 
relation connected by a preposition. 6. When is a phrase adjective in 
office ? 7. When adverbial % 8. What is a prepositional phrase 1 9. What 
is a preposition % 10. In what respect is a phrase prepositional % 11. In 
what respect is a phrase adverbial ? 12. In what respect is it adjective % 
13. Of what is a prepositional phrase composed 1 14. What is analysis in 
grammar ? 

CH.— COMPOSITION LESSON.— SYNTHESIS. 

366. Direction. — Combine the following statements into a simple sen- 
tence containing one subject, one verb, one object complement, and prep- 
ositional phrases : 

The captain stranded his vessel. 
He did so by his own carelessness. 
He stranded her on a sand-bar. 
It was in broad daylight. 
It was in sight of the harbor. 

Combined. 

The captain, by his own carelessness, stranded his vessel on a sand- 
bar, in broad daylight, in sight of the harbor. 

Direction. — Combine the following statements into a simple sentence 
containing one subject, one verb, one object complement, and prepositional 
phrases : 



ANAL YSIS.—DIA GRAMMING. 



121 



The Rev. A. G. Spinner addressed a large audience. 

He did so yesterday. He is a resident of this city. 

He addressed the audience at Ocean Grove. 

The address was on the moral phase of the temperance question. 

Also on the religious and social phases of the question. 

Direction. — Combine the following statements into a compound sentence, 
the first member containing five subjects and one verb, and the second 
containing one subject, one verb with an object, avoiding repetition. 

The green ferns bloomed. 

The green grasses bloomed. 

The golden buttercup bloomed. 

Tiny pearl-flowers bloomed. 

Blue violets bloomed. 

They bloomed beside the little stream. 

The glad sunshine threw its mantle of blessing over one and all. 

Direction. — Combine these statements into a simple sentence containing 
one subject, two verbs, each having one object, and arrange the phrases 

properly : 

An unknown man fired a revolver. 

He fired it at a telegraph operator. 

This was done yesterday. 

It happened in Atlanta. 

Atlanta is in Georgia. 

He slightly wounded the operator. 



CIEL-MODELS FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 

367. 1. The flowers in the garden scatter their fragrance on the 
balmy air. 



Class 


Simple declarative. 

The flowers in the garden. 

Scatter their fragrance on the balmy air. 

Flowers, mod. by adj. the, and the adj. phrase 

in the garden. 
Scatter, modified by the adverbial phrase on 

the balmy air. 
Fragrance, modified by the poss. pronoun 

their. 


Modified subject 

Predicate 

Simple subject. 


Predicate- verb 


Object 



122 



ANALYSIS.— DIA GRAMMING. 



2. The lucky fisherman caught a very fine lot of bass in the morning, 
but in the afternoon he did not get a single bite. 



Class 


Compound declarative. 

The lucky fisherman caught a very fine lot 


First member 


• 


of bass in the morning. 


Second member 


In the afternoon he did not get a single bite. 
But. 


Connective 


Simple sub., first mem. . . 


Fisherman, mod. by the adj. the and lucky. 


Predicate-verb 


Caught, unmodified. 

Lot, mod. by adj. phrase of bass, and the adj. 
fine, which is, itself, mod. by adv. very. 


Object 




Simple sub., second mem. 


He, not modified. 


Predicate- verb 


Did get, mod. by adv. not, and adv. phrase 
in the afternoon. 




Object 


Bite, mod. by adj. a and single. 





DIAGRAMS. 



_L _r ~L _!_ ^_ _E To. 

1. Birds of beautiful plumage flew around us in great numbers. 

~r i 7 i 1 — — ~ — 



1 2 1 o. ^_ 

2. The squirrel gnaws through the shell of a nut. 



Direction. — Use the following sentences as oral, and also as written, 
exercises in analysis ; then use them for a lesson in diagramming : 

1. The cork oak grows in large quantities in the Spanish peninsula. 

2. The golden flowers of the dandelion shut up at night, and open 
again in the morning. 

3. Squirrels and rabbits leaped along through the tall grass. 

4. In my hurry, my foot slipped, and I fell to the ground. 

5. This calm, cool, resolute man presented a noble example of courage 
to his comrades. 



CIV.— ARRANGEMENT OF PHRASES. 

368. Two or more adverbial phrases modifying the same word often 
occur in a sentence. When more than two such phrases occur in sue- 



ARRANGEMENT OF PHRASES. 123 

cession,* they are often separated from one another by the comma, to 
make the sense plain. 

1. The party started for home in a terrible storm. 

2. The ship stranded on the rocks, at daybreak, in a heavy fog. 

3. A man of rank sat, on one cold night, in a small room, before a 
cheerful fire. 

369. Comma Rule. — When more than two adverbial phrases 
occur in succession, they are generally separated from each 
other by a comma. 

370. As a general rule, when more than two adverbial phrases occur 
in the same sentence, they should not all be strung together at the end, 
but they should be so distributed as to satisfy the ear and make the sense 
plain. Even when only two phrases occur, they are often distributed, as 
in 2, of the following sentences : 

1. We shall start for California in the morning, 

2. In the morning, we shall start for California. 

3. On a clear day, the sun's rays shone through the window into 

the room. 

4. We went from New York to Philadelphia in three hours. 

5. With merry hearts, we wandered through the beautiful meadows. 

6. Birds of beautiful plumage flew around us in great numbers. 

Direction. — Select the prepositional phrases in the preceding sentences, 
and mention the word that each phrase modifies. 

371. An adverbial phrase is out of its natural order, when 
it begins a sentence ; when it stands between a verb and its 
subject; or between a verb and its object. [A phrase fre- 
quently stands between a verb and its object.] 

372. Comma Rule.f — When a phrase is out of its natural 
order, it should be set off from the rest of the sentence by 
commas. 

Direction. — Dictate the preceding, and also the following sentences as 
a lesson in punctuation. Analyze. 

* Adverbial phrases occur simply in succession when one directly follows an- 
other, each modifying the same word. 

t The tendency in modern usage seems to be to disregard this rule, except when 
it is necessary to prevent ambiguity or obscurity, or when the phrase is emphatic. 



124 ARRANGEMENT OF PHRASES. 

1. With weary feet, we began our homeward march. 

2. We shall, in all probability, finish the work to-morrow. 

3. Heaven, from all creatures, hides the book of fate. 

4. In this life, we see many changes of fortune. 

Questions. — 1. Why is no comma used in 1, 4, and 6, of the first set 
of sentences [370]? 2. In which of the second set does a phrase stand 
between a subject and its .verb? 3. Between a verb and its object? 4. 
In which sentences, in this lesson, do phrases occur in succession? 5. In 
which are they distributed? 6. In which does the phrase introduce the 
sentence ? 

CV.-ARRANGEMENT CONTINUED. 

373. It is very important that phrases should be so ar- 
ranged as to express most clearly and elegantly the sense in- 
tended to be conveyed. Sometimes a very ridiculous effect is 
produced by an improper arrangement. 

Phrases improperly arranged, 

1. A tailor made a coat for a boy of thick material. 

2. An old man dug a deep well with a Roman nose. 

3. A beautiful lady played on a piano with auburn hair. 

4. A young man drove a flock of sheep on horseback yesterday. 

Direction. — Arrange the preceding, and also the following, sentences so 
that the language will be smooth and the sense clear. Punctuate after 
arranging : 

1. The youth strolled along the river in the evening at a very gentle 
pace in a pensive mood. 2. The Mayflower arrived on a stormy night 
with a hundred Pilgrims in the harbor. 3. Washington started through a 
trackless forest in mid-winter on his perilous journey. 4. General Proctor 
marched in May with two thousand men against the Americans. 5. The 
party started in a terrible storm on the next morning for home at day- 
break. 

374. The phrases in a sentence may sometimes be arranged 
in two or more ways. Sentence 5 may be arranged as follows : 

1. On the next morning at daybreak, the party started for home in a 
terrible storm. 



ELLIPTICAL PHRASES. 125 

2. The party started for home on the next morning at daybreak, in a 
terrible storm. 

Note. — The former of these two arrangements is preferable, as it avoids 
stringing the phrases all together at the end of the sentence. 

Model for parsing Prepositions. 
"The farmer built a fence around his field." 

375. Around is a preposition connecting its object field with the 
verb built, and showing the relation between them. 

Remark.— This form is chosen as it best satisfies both oral and written 
parsing. The following are used by other authors : 1. " Around is a prep- 
osition, and with its object field forms a phrase modifying the verb built" 
2. " Around is a preposition introducing the phrase around his field, and 
connecting it with the verb built" 



CVI.— PREPOSITIONS OMITTED.— ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE. 
—INDIRECT OBJECT. 

1. The party started for home the next morning. 

Explanation. — In this sentence, on is omitted before the words in 
italics; the complete phrase is, "on the next morning.'' Such an omis- 
sion is called an ellipsis, and the remaining part in italics is called an 
elliptical phrase. 

376. An ellipsis of a preposition often occurs when the ob- 
ject of the phrase signifies time, measure, distance, quantity, 
weight, or value ; as, 

1. They went home on the morning train [to their home]. 

2. We staid a iveek at Saratoga [for a week]. 

3. We rode three hours through a beautiful valley [for three hours]. 

4. We walked two miles before breakfast [over the distance of two 

miles]. 

5. John jumped over a fence three feet high* [high to three feet]. 

6. I walked the floor all night [over the floor during all night], 

7. We will start for California to-morrow [on to-morrow]. 

8. We saw him ten times that day. 

* High is an adjective modifying fence, and feet is an adverbial objective modi- 
fying the adjective high [377]. 



126 ELLIPTICAL PHRASES. 

377, The Adverbial Objective. — Each elliptical phrase in 
these eight sentences (as home, a week, three hours), performs 
the same adverbial office as the complete phrase; therefore 
the object in such a phrase (used either with or without a 
modifier), being a remnant of an adverbial element, is called 
the adverbial objective. This use of the elliptical form of 
a phrase is idiomatic, and (as in sentence 8) it is sometimes 
impossible to determine what preposition has been omitted; 
it is better, therefore, to consider the objects' in these elliptical 
phrases as adverbial objectives modifying the verbs or adjec- 
tives with which they are used. 

Note. — To-morrow, nearly always used without a preposition, is called 
simply an adverb, and the ellipsis need not be supplied in analysis and 
parsing. To-day, to-night, and yesterday are used in the same way. 

378. The Indirect Object. — The verbs give, show, make, 
bring, offer, forgive, promise, pay, ask, teach, etc., often take 
two objects — one direct, and the other indirect. The indirect 
object is generally equivalent to a phrase, to or for being 
understood; as, 

1. The grocer gave me* a ripe peach [gave to me]. 

2. The tailor made him a coat [made for him]. 

Note. — This is another example of the adverbial objective, and it may 
be so considered ; or the preposition may be supplied in analysis and 
parsing. 

Direction. — Mention the adverbial objective in each of the following 
sentences; supply the ellipsis where it is possible; tell which adverbial 
objectives are indirect objects ; determine what word each elliptical phrase 
modifies ; analyze and parse. 

1. The postman brought me a letter. 2. We showed him the pictures. 
3. We gave the horse oats, but he would not eat them. 4. The unfortunate 
man lived three days in great agony. 5. I paid him his wages. 6. For- 
give your friends their faults. 7. The exhibition will close next Friday. 
8. He had vast estates, north, south, east, and west. 9. They came home 
from the picnic in high glee. 

* A noun or a pronoun, used in this way, is sometimes called the dative object. 



ELLIPTICAL PHRASES. 127 

Questions. — 1. Before what kind of objects are prepositions not ex- 
pressed? 2. To what is the indirect object of a verb generally equivalent? 

3. Why are to-day, to-morrow, and yesterday considered simply as adverbs ? 

4. Which is the indirect object in " They offered him a good position " I 

5. What relation does Mm -hold in this sentence f 6. Give a sentence con- 
taining an adverbial objective, and tell why it is so called. 7. Give an 
example of an indirect, or dative object. 



CVH.— LIKE, UNLIKE, NEAR, NIGH, AND OPPOSITE. 

379. The preposition to or unto is generally omitted after 
the words like, unlike, near, nigh, and opposite, when they are 
adjectives or adverbs. To is generally omitted, also, before 
home. 

380. Like and unlike are adjectives when used in a com- 
parison of things ; they are adverbs when used in a comparison 
of acts. 

1. We saw a bird somewhat like [to] the American eagle. ■ [Things 

compared.] 

2. The great man wept like [unto] a child. [Acts compared.] 

381. Near, nigh, and opposite are adjectives when posi- 
tion or place is merely assumed', they are adverbs when place 
is asserted. 

1. A house near the road afforded us shelter. [Position assumed.] 

2. We lived near the church. [Place asserted.] 

3. The old house opposite the church fell to the ground. [Position 

assumed.] 

4. They stood opposite the post-office. [Place asserted.] 

5. This man drives like Jehu. 

6. His house stands near the road. 

7. Do not come nigh me. 

8. She sings like a nightingale. 

9. My uncle lives near Lake "George. 

Note. — Some authors consider near and nigh to be prepositions di- 
rectly followed by nouns and pronouns as objects. 

Direction. — Select the prepositional phrases in the preceding sentences, 
supplying the omitted prepositions. 



128 ELLIPTICAL PHRASES. 

Questions. — 1. After what adjectives or adverbs is to or unto omitted! 
2. When are like and unlike adjectives? Adverbs? 3. When are near 
and nigh and opposite adjectives? 4. When are they adverbs? 5. What 
form of pronoun must follow a preposition ? 6. What is omitted in the 
sentence, '• We will go home to-morrow " ? 



CVIII.— OBJECTS OMITTED. 

382. The object of a phrase is often omitted, only the prep- 
osition being retained. In such cases, the preposition is con- 
sidered simply an adverb or an adjective — an adverb when the 
preposition is the remnant of an adverbial phrase — an adjective 
when it is the remnant of an adjective phrase. The ellipsis 
need not be supplied in analysis and parsing. 

1. The carriage went up slowly [up the hill], 

2. The wind scattered the leaves around [around the lawn]. 

3. We left the party behind [behind us], 

4. They went down into the mine [down the shaft], 

5. The stars above shone with unwonted splendor [above us], 

6. The valley below rejoiced in sunshine and shower [below us], 
Note. — Above and below, as here used, are generally called adjectives, 

without supplying the ellipsis. 

Direction. — Detect the elliptical phrase in each of the following sen- 
tences; supply the ellipsis when a preposition is omitted; use the sen- 
tences for analysis and parsing : 

1. Yesterday our shipmates again stopped for refreshments. 

2. The dark and wondrous night came quickly on. 

3. The poor old man leaned on his staff and tottered slowly along. 

4. All day the rain poured in torrents. 

5. We will attend the meeting to-morrow. 

6. That eminent judge sat many years upon the bench. 

7. A bad reputation stuck to him all his life. 

8. His bad temper gave him much trouble. 

9. The path near the river leads to the mill. 

10. He might have come a shorter way. 

11. He walks like his father. 

12. He looks like his mother. 

13. The house opposite the falls stands on solid rock. 



COMPOUND PHRASES. 129 

Eeview Questions. — 1. What is an elliptical prepositional phrase? 2. 
What kind of nouns are often used as objects of omitted prepositions? 
3. What verbs often take elliptical phrases after them ? 4. When are up, 
down, and other prepositions called adverbs ? 5. What are the rules for 
punctuating prepositional phrases? 6. How should more than two ad- 
verbial phrases occurring in a sentence be arranged? 7. What two offices 
do prepositional phrases perform ? 8. In what sense is a phrase prep- 
ositional % Adverbial ? Adjective ? 9. What two terms of relation does 
a preposition have ? 10. What ellipses need not be supplied in parsing 
and analysis ? 

CIX.— COMPOUND PHRASE. 

1. Chestnut-trees grow in these ivoods and they grow on 
yonder hill. 

2. Chestnut-trees grow in these ivoods and on yonder hill. 
[Condensed.] 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, and connects two members of a compound 
sentence ; but there is an unnecessary repetition of subject and verb, which 
is avoided in 2, by omitting this repetition, thus leaving and to connect 
the two phrases. In these woods and on yonder hill, taken as a whole, is 
a compound phrase which modifies the verb grow. 

Questions. — 1. What kind of sentence is 1 ? 2. What does and con- 
nect in 1? 3. What does and connect in 2? 4. What kind of phrase 
is found in 2 ? 

383. Definition. — A compound phrase is one composed of 
two or more phrases connected by a conjunction. 

Direction. — Select the phrases in the following sentences ; tell whether 
they are simple or compound ; and also tell what word each phrase modi- 
fies. Analyze each sentence and parse such words as may be deemed 
desirable : 

1. The valleys rejoiced in sunshine and in shower. [Comp'd phrase.] 

2. The valleys rejoiced in sunshine and shower. [Simple phrase, with 

compound object.] 

3. Men of thought and men of action clear the way. 

4. Men of experience and of practical wisdom generally succeed. 
, 5. Very large trees fall to the ground with a great crash. 

6. They hunted in the wood-shed and in the barn for eggs. 



130 REVIEW. 

7. They fought with stone arrows and spears. 

8. One day we suddenly came upon a fawn asleep. 

9. The wild man of the woods ran like a deer. 

10. The whole scene seemed like fairy-land. 

11. A flock of wild geese flew directly* over our heads. 

12. Undoubtedly,! the earth moves around the sun. 

Model for Analysis. 

384. The compound phrase in sentence 1 may be analyzed thus : In 
sunshine and in shower is a compound prepositional phrase consisting of 
two simple phrases connected by and. The principal word in the first 
phrase is sunshine ; and in the second, shower. 

Questions. — 1. What is a compound phrase % 2. The phrase in 2, is 
simple with a compound object ; what was omitted from 1, to make the 
phrase in 2, simple % 

CX,— REVIEW. 

In the preceding lessons we have learned the following 
facts : 

385. A noun or a pronoun may be used as — 

1. Subject of a verb: The visitors came, but they did not stay. 

2. Object of a verb : We caught some fish, but we gave them 

away. 

3. Object of a preposition : We waited for them in the library . 

4. Modifier of a noun : My father found Mary's pet in the garden. 

386. An adjective is used as — 

1. Modifier of a noun: Cold air condenses vapor. 

2. Modifier of a pronoun : Exercise made him weary. 

387. A verb is used as — 

1. The entire predicate of a sentence: The parrot died. 

2. Principal part of the predicate : He may have seen him. 

* The adverb directly modifies the adverbial phrase over our heads. The sense 
is not flew directly, but directly over our heads. 

t In this sentence, undoubtedly is used rather to confirm the truth of the whole 
statement that follows it, than to refer simply to the act expressed by the word 
moves. [An adverb used in this way is called a modal adverb.] 



REVIEW. 131 

388. An adverb may be used as — 

1. Modifier of a verb : The wind blew steadily. 

2. Modifier of an adjective : The angler caught a very fine trout. 

3. Modifier of an adverb: We walked too rapidly. 

4. Modifier of a phrase : We walked almost to the river. 

5. Modifier of a sentence : Certainly, I shall go to-morrow. 

389. A conjunction is used — 

To connect words : The thunder and lightning frightened us. 
To connect phrases : The valleys rejoiced in sunshine and in shower. 
To connect sentences : The thunder roared and the lightning flashed. 

390. A preposition is used — 

1. To connect its object with another word : Fishes live in the water. 

Remark. — We have learned, then, something about seven of the eight 
parts of speech into which the words of the language are assorted. There 
is one more class, called interjections, about which we shall learn as we 
progress. 

Questions. — 1. In how many ways may a noun or a pronoun be used in 
a sentence! 2. How many parts of speech may an adjective modify! 3. 
Name the five ways in which an adverb may be used. 4. In how many 
ways may a conjunction be used in a sentence % 

CXI.— COMPLEX PHRASE. 

391. Often two or more phrases occur in connection * with- 
out a conjunction, one growing out of or depending on another. 

1. The merchant offered the position to an industrious man. 

2. The merchant offered the position to a man of industry. 
Explanation. — In sentence 2, the phrase "of industry" performs the 

same office as the adjective industrious in 1. " An industrious man " = 
" a man of industry " ; therefore the adjective phrase " of industry " may 
be said to grow out of the adjective industrious. 

* Simple phrases often occur in succession, each-modifying some word in the sen- 
tence, not found in another phrase ; as, " They passed through the gate into the gar- 
den. ,, In this sentence each phrase modifies the verb passed. But one phrase often 
follows another, each succeeding phrase being connected with the object of the one 
preceding ; as, " The bird fastened its nest to the branch of a tree." In this sentence 
the phrase of a tree modifies branch, and is connected with it by the preposition of. 



132 COMPLEX PHRASES. ' 

392. The phrase " to a man of industry " is composed of two phrases 
connected together by the preposition of, the second phrase modifying the 
object of the first phrase. These two phrases taken as a whole form a 
complex phrase. In this phrase " to a man of industry," the principal 
phrase is to a man, and of industry is the dependent phrase — dependent 
because it depends on, or modifies, the object of the principal phrase, in 
the sense of an adjective. 

393. Definition. — A complex prepositional phrase is one 

composed of two or more phrases, each succeeding phrase 
modifying the object of the one preceding. 

Direction. — Find in the following sentences three complex phrases; 
select the simple phrases and tell whether they are adjective or adverbial 
in use; mention the phrases that occur simply in succession. Analyze 
each sentence : 

1. He dived to the bottom of the river for pebbles. 

2. We waited in great anxiety for the morning. 

3. He was sent to school at the age of eight years. 

4. We rowed for the land with all speed. 

5. The kite lodged among the branches of a large tree. 

6. Ears of Indian corn hung in gay festoons along the wall. 

Model for Analysis, 
1. This shady path will lead us to the bend in the river. 

394. This is a simple declarative sentence. The simple subject path 
is modified by the adjectives this and shady. The predicate-verb will 
lead is completed by the object complement us, and modified by the com- 
plex adverbial phrase to the bend in the river. The object bend in the 
principal phrase, is modified by the dependent adjective phrase in the 
river. [It is not necessary always to analyze the separate phrases.] 

395. More than two phrases may occur in connection to 
form a complex phrase. 

1. We passed through the grounds of a man of great wealth. 

2. We staid for a week, at the house of our friend. 

3. The lonely old man sat once more on the steps of the home of his 
childhood. 

4. The captain loaded his vessel with a large cargo of oranges from 
the peninsula of Florida. 



COMPOSITION. 133 

Questions. — 1. When do phrases occur in connection? 2. What is a 
compound phrase ? 3. What is a complex phrase ? 4. What is a depend- 
ent phrase ? 5. What connects a dependent phrase with a principal phrase ? 
6. What connects the parts of a compound phrase ? 7. Mention the two 
phrases in the sentence, ' ; He dived to the bottom of the river for pebbles." 
8. Which of the two phrases is complex ? 9. Which is simple ? 10. What 
word does it modify? 11. In the complex phrase, which of the phrases is 
dependent ? 



CXII.— SYNTHESIS. 

(These exercises should not all be taken in one lesson.) 

396, Direction. — Combine into a simple sentence containing one sub- 
ject, one verb, and phrases properly arranged and punctuated : 

The old clock stopped. It stopped early in the morning. 

It stopped suddenly. It stopped without any cause of 

It was in the kitchen. complaint. 

Direction. — Combine into a simple sentence and arrange the phrases 
properly and punctuate : 

The two brothers walked together. They walked toward the landing. 
They walked arm in arm. The landing was at the foot of 

It was in the cool of the evening. the hill. 

Direction. — Combine into a simple sentence containing one subject, 
one verb, one object, with phrases properly arranged : 

Mr. Cammeyer entertained the Babylon is on Long Island. 

guests. It was done on Tuesday. 

They were guests of a hotel. He entertained them with artistic 
It was the Argyll hotel. performances. 

It is situated at Babylon. The performances were on the banjo. 

Direction. — Combine the following statements into a simple sentence 

containing one subject, three verbs, rushed, burst, and appeared, and 
phrases properly set off by commas : 

The fireman rushed up the It was the room of the frantic 

stairs. woman. 

The stairs were burning. He appeared on tne roof. 

He was cool. He appeared in less than a minute. 

He was fearless. He appeared with a child in his 

He burst into a room. arms. 



134 IDIOMATIC PHRASES. 

CXIH.— IDIOMS.— IDIOMATIC PHRASES. 

397. Idioms. — An idiom is an expression peculiar to a lan- 
guage, not admitting of analysis in the usual way ; as, 

1. I had rather stay at home. [Rather = preferably, or in preference.] 

2. He had tetter stay at home. [Better = more advantageously.] 
These idiomatic expressions do not admit of satisfactory analysis. In 

a regularly constructed sentence an adverb may be omitted or transposed 
without destroying the sense ; but if we omit the adverb rather, there will 
remain " I had stay at home," which is nonsense. Transposing rather, or 
its equivalent " in preference," we have " I had stay at home in prefer- 
ence" * which is almost meaningless. Yet such expressions, as 1 and 2, 
are used by many of the best writers, and are defended by some gram- 
marians. 

398. Idiomatic Phrases. — The phrases in the following sen- 
tences, though apparently prepositional in form, are idiomatic. 
A few only are elliptical prepositional phrases ; as, at last, 
which may be taken to mean at the last moment ; but in vain 
does not mean in a vain manner, nor does at once mean at one 
time. All such phrases, therefore, are classed as idiomatic 
phrases, each being used as one whole, and equivalent to an 
adjective or an advert ; as, 

1. They arrived at last [finally]. 2. He obeyed at once [promptly]. 
3. He struggled manfully, but in vain [unsuccessfully]. 4. Side by side 
we walked along [together]. 5. They fought hand to hand [closely]. 6. 
They engaged in a hand-to-hand conflict [close — adjective]. 7. How we 
sang together in the good days of old ! [ancient — adjective], 8. He did not 
come at all [ever]. 9. The merry little minnows darted to and fro in 
the shallow pool. 

399. Definition. — An idiomatic phrase is one that does not 
admit of analysis in the usual way, but is used (as a whole) as 
a modifying element. 

* These expressions (sentences 1 and 2) are difficult (if not impossible) to analyze. 
Considering stay as an infinitive does not relieve the awkwardness nor restore the 
sense lost by the transposition of the adverbial modifier. Besides, "I had to stay at 
home in preference 11 does not at all express the sense of sentence 1. In all such ex- 
pressions, would should take the place of had. " I would rather stay at home," " He 
would better stay at home. 11 



OTHER PREPOSITIONS. 135 

Direction. — Analyze the nine preceding sentences, calling "at last," 
etc., idiomatic phrases. 

400. Other Idiomatic Phrases. — At least; at first; at pres- 
ent; as yet; by and by; by the by; by the way; long ago; 
little by little ; out and out ; step by step ; through and 
through ; at random ; at all ; by far. 



CXIV.-OTHER PREPOSITIONS. 

401. A, meaning at, on, or in, is rarely used as a preposi- 
tion, except before a participle and in business accounts ; as, 

1. Toward evening we went a-fishing [at fishing]. 

2. Bought 12 lbs. of sugar @ 6 cents [at 6 cents]. 

Note. — Such expressions as "went a-fishing" and "went a-hunting" 
are not now used by good writers. 

402. Excepting, concerning, respecting, and touching are, by most 
authors, placed in the list of prepositions. 

403. Phrase-Prepositions. — Two prepositions, taken together 
as one, may be called a plirase^reposition ; as, 

1. The dog came from under the table. 

These two words may be separately considered, and from be called a 
preposition having for its object the phrase " under the table " ; as, 

2. The dog came from under the table. 

An ellipsis may be supplied, thus giving each preposition a word 
object, and forming a complex phrase ; as, 

3. The dog came from [a place] under the table. 

404. Other Phrase-Prepositions. — According to ; contrary 
to ; as to ; from beyond ; from out ; from over ; from between ; 
out of; over against; instead of; round about, etc. 

Direction. — Supply a phrase-preposition for each blank space : 

1. They drew water — — this well. 4. They came Jordan. 

2. I have nothing to say his 5. They came Judea. 

character. 6. God had set one the 

3. They proceeded my directions. other. 



136 USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

CXV.— PROPER USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

405. Beside, besides.— Beside means by the side of. "We sat 
beside the river." Besides means in addition to. "We found many- 
beautiful specimens besides these." [Besides, in the sense of moreover, 
or beyond, is a conjunctive adverb (660). " We did not go, for want of 
time ; besides, it rained."] 

406. By, with. — By is used when a conscious agent is implied in 
the act. With is used when an instrument is implied ; as, 

1. The field was dug up by the laborer [agent] with a spade [in- 

strument]. 

2. He was struck by a thunderbolt [agent]. 

3. Jupiter struck him with a thunderbolt [instrument]. 

4. We were attended [or accompanied] by friends [living beings], 

5. The act was attended with disastrous results [things without life]. 

407. In, at. — In is larger in meaning than at ; consequently, in is 
used before names of countries, cities, and large towns. At should be 
used before the names of villages, single houses, and foreign cities far 
distant; as, 

1. He was educated at Yale college. 

2. He lived in Brooklyn, but he died at Canton, 

3. He spent his vacation in New Hampshire, at the village of Conway. 

408. To, at. — To denotes motion or direction toward an object. At 
denotes nearness or presence in connection with mere locality ; as, 

1. He went to Boston. 3. He staid at home. 

2. They sailed to Charleston. 4. We bought the goods at Stewart's. 

409. In, into. — Into implies entrance, or motion, which begins out- 
side of a place or thing, and ends inside. In implies place where, after 
entrance is made, or motion that begins and ends inside ; as, 

1. Mary went into the house. 5. We went into the park. 

2. She remained in the house 6. We walked in the park a long 

during the afternoon. time. 

3. He put the knife into his 7. We went into the next room. 

pocket. 8. We remained in the room an 

4. The knife is in his pocket yet. hour. 

Direction. — Dictate the eight preceding sentences, leaving out the prep- 
ositions, and require pupils to supply them. 



USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 137 

410. Of, for. — A taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment. A taste 
for a thing implies a capacity for enjoyment. 

411. Of, in. — We are disappointed of a thing when we fail to get it. 
We are disappointed 'in a thing when we have it and it does not satisfy 
our expectation. 

412. From, to, with, — We say, "different from," not "different to 
or than" We say, "I differ with you in opinion." One thing differs 
from another in appearance. 

413. To, for. — A person or thing is adapted to any purpose or use, 
not adapted for. Adequate to, or equal to, a task — not for. 

414. With, to. — We compare one thing with another in regard to 
quality or quantity. We compare one thing to another for the sake of 
illustration. We accord a privilege to, and are in accord with, a person. 
A man's actions correspond [are consistent] with his professions ; but a 
man may use a word that does not correspond to his idea [not suitable]. 
A man may say a word suited to the occasion ; and may be well suited 
with his circumstances. 

415. Between, among. — We divide anything between two persons 
— among three or more. 

416. In, to. — We confide in a person with reference to his general 
character. We confide a matter to a person for safe-keeping. 

417. 0£ with. — We accuse a person of a crime, not with & crime. 
We charge a person with an act, not of an act. 

418. But, for, since. — These and a few other prepositions are also 
used as conjunctions ; as, 

1. I have not seen him since last Christmas. [Preposition.] 

2. I will not attempt it, since I can not do it well. [Conjunction.] 

3. They made a collection for the poor. [Preposition.] 

4. I must go, for it is late. [Conjunction.] 

5. All but him had finished. [Preposition.] 

6. We tried, but we did not succeed. [Conjunction.] 

Direction. — Fill the blank spaces in the following sentences with the 
proper prepositions : 

1. He poured ink the inkstand. 2. We went the country. 

3. The Delaware River empties the Delaware Bay. 4. The wheat 

was cut a machine. 5. The field was won hard fighting. 6. We 

saw you the concert. 7. We stopped Ovington's. 8. He ac- 
cused me — — stealing his knife. 9. My book is different yours. 

10 



138 USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

CXVI.-USE OF PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 

419. Direction. — Supply the proper prepositions in the blank spaces 
in the following sentences : 

1. We walked out a slippery morning. 2. They live Phila- 
delphia a hotel. 3. Very little grows on this soil the cactus. 

4. The careless boy left his book home. 5. They accused him 

neglecting his duty. 6. Received, New York, Jan. 1, 1886, Mr. 

James, $25. 7. The soil is adapted cotton and rice. 8. You may 

rely what I say, and confide his honesty. 9. I am tall in com- 
parison you. 10. He put the knife his pocket. 11. They have 

nice goods the new store. 12. The boy fell the river from a 

narrow bridge. 13. My family will spend the summer the Catskills, 

the village of Windham. 14. The man, living on yonder hill, abounds 

wealth. 15. This mountain lake abounds fish. 16. He was 

injured an explosion of gunpowder. 17. The unfortunate man died 

small-pox. 18. The excessive heat of the afternoon was followed 

a thunder-shower. 19. This circumstance has no resemblance 

the other. 20. This is a very different machine the one we saw 

yesterday. 21. We remained the south a little village. 22. 

There is no need so much preparation. 

Unnecessary Use of Prepositions and Adverts. 

420. 1. Give me both of those books. 2. He got on to the stage. 
3. They ascended up the hill. 4. They returned back from the concert. 

5. They advanced forward. 6. I cut this silk off of the large piece. 7. 
He knows more than you think for. 8. The spring is near to the house. 
9. What went ye out for to see ? 

Improper Omission of Prepositions. 

421. 1. I put some apples into the basket and [ ] my hat. 2. The 
statement is worthy [ ] your notice. 3. Such a man is unworthy [ ] 
respect. 4. The rod is [ ] seven to nine feet long. 5. There is no use 

] arguing about it. 6. There is nothing to prevent him [ ] going. 

422. Prepositions used as Adjectives.— l. We will take the down 

train. 2. His name will live in after ages. 3. The above illustration is 
sufficient. 4. Men generally sympathize with the under dog. 

Unthought-of ; unsought- for ; uncared-for; unheard-of, are compound 
adjectives having prepositions as suffixes. 



WORDS MISUSED. 139 

CXVH.— WORDS FREQUENTLY MISUSED. 

423. A few words in common use are frequently misused, 
especially in conversation. 

424. Like, love. — Like means, to be pleased with to a 
moderate degree. Love means, to be delighted with; to have 
an affection for, or an attachment to, some person or object. 

We like good food ; fun ; the country ; flowers ; pictures ; any pleasure 
or recreation ; or people who simply please us. 

We love our parents or companions ; our home or country ; truth and 
honor. 

Direction. — Fill the blank spaces properly in the following sentences : 

1. Some children to go to school. 

2. The true soldier his country. 

3. I the lady to whom you introduced me yesterday. 

4. Some pupils to study arithmetic. 

5. Some people to dance. 

425. Get. — Get means to obtain by one's own effort. 

A person may get property ; may get into difficulty ; may get a lesson ; 
may get to Boston ; may get to bed ; may get up ; may get over ; may 
get off. 

Get may be used in the sense of become without losing the idea of 
effort. A person may get angry ; may get wet or get sick [by exposure] ; 
may get well', may get strong. 

Get should not be used to express what comes to a person unavoid- 
ably ; nor to express necessity, obligation, or mere possession. We should 
not say, " He has got the measles " ; " The mouse got caught in a trap " ; 
" I have got to go to Chicago " ; "I have got to do my duty " ; "I have 
got to get another coat " ; "I have got a fine piano " ; " He hasn't got any 
money." Say, " He has the measles " ; mouse was caught ; must go to 
Chicago ; should do my duty ; have a piano, etc. 

426. Stop, stay. — To stop means to cease moving. To stay 
means to remain an indefinite length of time after stopping 
at a place ; as, 

1. On our way to New York we stopped at Chicago, where we staid 
a week. 



140 WORDS MISUSED. 

Direction. — Supply the proper form of stop or stay in each of the 
following sentences : 

1. We are now at the Delavan House. 

2. They overnight at Cincinnati. 

3. How long will the train for refreshments? 

4. We bought a ticket. 

Direction. — Supply a verb and a preposition for each of the following 
sentences : 

1. With whom did you Baltimore? 

2. At what station did you refreshments? 

3. At what hotel did you New Orleans? 

4. Why did you not overnight Boston? 

5. Why did you not longer San Francisco? 

427. Like, unlike, etc; — Some consider like and unlike, etc., to 
have the value of prepositions in such sentences as, " He walks like his 
father " ; " This boy, unlike his brother, often gets into trouble." Most 
authors, however, prefer to call them adjectives or adverbs, and supply 
to or unto as the governing word. 

Like must not be followed by a noun or pronoun in the nominative 
case ; as, " He does not walk like I do." [Say, " walk as, 11 etc.] 



CXVIII.-ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

428. Direction. — Examine carefully the following sentences, determine 
where commas should be placed, and give reasons. Write from dictation 
and punctuate. Analyze and parse. 

Sentences for Punctuation, Analysis, and Parsing. 

1. The beautiful fern lies in rusty patches on the open hill-side 

2. Fishes swim in the sea and birds fly in the air 

3. Do you know the way to the top of the mountain 

4. The lawn in front extends to the river 

5. The thief crept into the house through a very small window and 

stole a valuable set of jewelry 

6. Suddenly out sprang a beautiful fawn 

7. Mark Haley's breast the storm defies 

8. "Night drew her sable curtain down 

And pinned it with a star" 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 141 

9. The geraniums of California grow to a very large size and they 
sometimes form hedges for gardens 

10. A flock of blackbirds flew directly over our heads 

11. I urged him strongly but he declined my invitation with thanks 

12. We sigh for change and spend our time for naught 

13. In the evening we rode home through darkness and storm 

14. Which path will lead us to the bend in the river 

15. Misfortune makes some people very gloomy 

16. That venturesome sailor swam a mile out to sea 

17. "In silence majestic they twinkle on high 

And draw admiration from every eye" 

18. The wind blew all day with violence from the north 

19. Fruit in air-tight jars will keep several years in good order 

20. That industrious young man succeeded beyond his expectations 

21. With haughty steps the boisterous actor strode across the stage 

22. "On prey intent the wily foe 

Approached with cautious steps and slow" 

23. A few well-directed efforts frequently produce great changes in 

the events of a man's life 
24 They rowed the boat across the pond and up the stream 
25. Often two or three wild deer came with the tame fawn, almost to 

the edge of the wood but they never ventured fairly out of 

the forest 



CXIX.-AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH SUBJECT. 

429. Care should be taken not to let the ear be deceived into allow- 
ing the verb to agree in number with the object of a preposition ; as, 
1. This book of poems affords me much pleasure. [Not afford^ 

Direction. — Determine which of the two words in the brackets is the 
correct one, in each of the following sentences, and give the reason for 
your decision : 

1. A variety of pleasing objects [charms or charm] the eye. 

2. Fifty pounds of wheat [contains or contain] forty pounds of flour. 

3. Not one of my neighbor's sons [has or have] succeeded in business. 

4. A cargo of fine oranges [have or has] just arrived from Florida. 

5. There [goes or go] my neighbor and her daughter. 

6. Large quantities of rice [comes or come] from South Carolina. 

7. Time and tide [waits or wait] for no man. 



142 INTERMEDIATE EXPRESSIONS. 

8. [Has or have] the goods arrived in good condition? 
9 There [comes or come] father and mother. 

10. The regiment [consists or consist] of a thousand men. 

11. A great variety of flowers [make or makes] a garden beautiful. 

12. This great orator and statesman [deserve or deserves] great honor. 
13c A bushel of handsome pears [were or was] taken from one tree. 
14. The number of inhabitants [do or does] not exceed two thousand. 

430. The word number, followed by of having a plural object, re- 
quires a plural verb; as, A number of persons have arrived. But number 
preceded by the takes a singular verb [see sentence 14, above]. The words 
variety, abundance, and plenty follow the same rule [see sentences 1 
and 11]. 

CXX.— INTERMEDIATE EXPRESSIONS.— PUNCTUATION. 

1. The rest of the family, hoivever, came in the afternoon. 

2. I did not tell you, by the way, of our dangerous adventure. 

3. His conduct, according to his own account, was inex- 

cusable. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, however is thrown in between the subject 
and its verb, thus making a slight break in the sentence ; it is, therefore, 
set off by commas. Sentences 2 and 3 are broken into in the same way. 

431. Such expressions as hoivever, therefore, indeed, in 
truth, by the way, etc., are frequently thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence, and they are, therefore, called inter- 
mediate expressions. Having little or no modifying force, 
they may properly be called independent. 

432 Comma Rule. — All intermediate expressions should be 
set off by commas. 

Direction. — Select the intermediate expressions in the following sen- 
tences, and tell where commas should be placed : 

1. All our duties indeed required much thought. 

2. Our baggage therefore came on the next train. 

3. This by the way we could not easily accomplish. 

4. The boys perhaps are better prepared. 

5. He did not know however that we were coming. 

6. The whole town in fact took part in the celebration. 



ABBREVIATED SENTENCES. 143 

433. Direction. — Complete the following sentences by inserting a sin- 
gle word [verb] in its correct form in 1 to 6 inclusive, an adjective in 7, 
and the correct form of the relative who in the last : 

1. Great pains taken with his education. 

2. He or his brother the book. 

3. Neither he nor his brother wealthy. 

4. The committee unanimous in their opinion. 

5. Neither he nor I frightened. 

6. The weight of the boxes so great that it excited suspicion. 

7. That house is the of the three. 

8. They were not the men we saw yesterday. 

Note. — In sentence 8, the word to be supplied is the complement of 
the verb saw. The sentences in this lesson should not be used for analysis 
and parsing. 



CXXI.— ABBREVIATED COMPOUNDS.— PUNCTUATION. 

434. Language is made elliptical by condensation ; therefore 
a proper understanding of the construction of sentences as we 
find them, depends on the ability to detect ellipses and to 
supply them. 

435. It is shown [147-151] that disagreeable repetition is avoided 
by condensation ; as, 

1. Oxen and horses eat hay. 3. The farmer raises rye and wheat. 

2. The sun rises and sets. 4. The girls wrote slowly and neatly. 

5. Idle and extravagant people do not prosper. 

436. We have also learned that prepositional phrases may be con- 
nected by conjunctions ; as, 

1. We walked up the street and over the bridge. 

2. She dresses richly and in good taste. 

Note. — In sentence 2, and connects two adverbial elements — an ad- 
verbial word richly to an adverbial phrase in good taste. 

437. A conjunction is used to connect similar parts, or 
elements, in a sentence ; i. e., two nouns or pronouns ; two 
adjectives ; two verbs ; two adverbs ; two phrases ; a word and 
a phrase performing the same office [sentence 2, 436]. 



144: SERIES OF WORDS.— PUNCTUATION. 

438. When more than two words of the same part of speech 
are connected there is still an unpleasant repetition ; as, 

1. Oxen and sheep and horses eat hay. 

2. The boat tilted and filled and sank. 

3. A little girl bought a large and ripe and juicy peach. 

This repetition is avoided by omitting all the conjunctions, or all but 
the last, and using a comma for each omission ; as, 

1. Oxen, sheep, and horses eat hay. 

2. The boat tilted, filled, and sank. 

3. A little girl bought a large, ripe, juicy peach. 



CXXII.-SERIES OF WORDS.-PUNCTUATION. 

439. A succession of three or more words of the same part of 
speech, or a succession of similar phrases, is called a series ; as, 

1. Empires rise and flourish and decay. 

2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 

3. The farmer raises wheat, oats, and corn. 

4. A wide, smooth, shady path led to the river. 

5. Our soldiers fought long, bravely, and successfully. 

6. John, William, Henry, and Joseph formed the party. 

7. Through spring, summer, and autumn, we have a constant succes- 

sion of flowers. 

8. He had a good mind, a sound judgment, and a vivid imagination. 

9. Cotton grows in Brazil, in Egypt, in India, and in the United 

States. 
10. Our army went into winter quarters, the enemy crossed the river, 
and hostilities ceased for a time. 

Explanation. — Sentence 9 contains a series of phrases ; sentence 10, a 
succession of members that should be separated by commas. In 1, no 
conjunction is omitted, therefore no comma is required. In 4, the con- 
junctions are all omitted, and a comma properly supplies the place of each 
omission. In the other sentences, the conjunction is retained between the 
last two of each series, and a comma is inserted before the conjunction. 

440. Comma Rule. — When the conjunction is omitted from 
a series of words or phrases, a comma must be used to denote 
each omission : 



SERIES OF WORDS.— PUNCTUATION. 145 

(1) When the conjunction is retained between the last two words of 
the series, a comma is also inserted before the conjunction [439, 2, 3, 5]. 

(2) A comma is used between two words of the same part of speech 
when the conjunction is omitted, and sometimes between two sentences ; as, 

1. The stern and rigid Puritans worshiped here. 

2. The stern, rigid Puritans worshiped here. 

3. Crack went the whip, round went the wheels. 

(3) When no conjunction joins the last two words of a series forming 
a compound subject or a compound predicate, a comma should follow the 
last word also; as, 

1. The sun, the moon, the stars, revolve. 

2. Charity beareth, believeth, hopeth, all things. 

Direction. — Dictate the sentences to be written as a lesson in punctua- 
tion. Use them for analysis and parsing. 

(4) When no conjunction connects the last two of a series of ad- 
jectives standing before a noun, a comma should not separate the last 
adjective from its noun ; but when the series directly follows the noun, a 
comma is used to separate the noun from the nearest adjective ; as, 

1. This brave, loyal, patriotic man died in his country's defense. 

2. We bought some Florida oranges, large, ripe, and sweet. 

(5) When a series is composed of adjectives, and each preceding ad- 
jective modifies the others in combination with the noun, as one whole, 
no comma is required ; as, 

1. That wealthy man drives a beautiful white horse. 

2. That unfortunate old blind man fell into the river. 

3. An industrious young mechanic planned and built the house. 
Explanation. — In sentence 1, no comma should separate beautiful and 

white. The idea expressed by beautiful does not reside in the horse apart 
from his color, but in connection with it; beautiful, therefore, modifies 
white horse, as though written white-horse. In 2, that modifies "un- 
fortunate old blind man," unfortunate modifies "old blind man," and 
old modifies " blind man," and no commas are required to separate the 
adjectives. 

(6) Sometimes, to make the sense more emphatic, the conjunction is 
not omitted in a series ; no commas are then required unless the series is 
composed of adjectives each of which is emphatic ; as, 

1. All beauty and wisdom and power reside in the Creator. 

2. They were poor, and hungry, and cold, and friendless. 



146 PUNCTUATION. 

441. Comma Rule. — When a series consists of pairs of words 
or of phrases, a comma should be used after each pair ; as, 

1. Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, 
follow a civil war. 

2. Cotton grows in Egypt and in India, in Brazil and in the United 
States. 

Questions. — 1. Why are sentences abbreviated, or condensed? 2. What 
parts of a simple sentence does a conjunction connect? 3. Can a con- 
junction connect a word and a phrase % 4. What is a series of words or 
phrases, and from what does it arise ? 5. Should a comma be used in a 
series when the conjunction is not omitted % 6. When should a comma be 
used between two words of the same part of speech % 7. What rules are 
given for the punctuation of a series of words or phrases ? 8. When should 
a comma be placed after the last word of a series % 9. What is the rule 
for using the comma in case of pairs of words or of phrases ? 10. When 
should no comma be used in a series of adjectives having no connective % 



CXXIII.— OTHER RULES FOR THE COMMA. 

442. Comma Rule. — The omission of a verb in a member 
of a compound sentence should be denoted by a comma ; as, 

1. Labor brings pleasure, but idleness brings pain. 

2. Labor brings pleasure; idleness, pain. 

443. Comma Rule. — When a number of phrases are arranged 
out of their natural order, they should be set off by commas ; as, 

1. Upon the stairs, a tall, grim clock, with long hands and hungry 
face, ticked in cautious measure. 

444. Comma Rule. — A comma is placed after a. surname 
when written before the given name ; as, Garfield, James A. 

445. Comma Rule. — Words repeated should be separated 
from each other, and from the rest of the sentence, by the 
comma; as, 

1. Treason, treason, treason, re-echoed from every part of the house. 

446. Comma Rule. — A comma should be used whenever the 
sense would not be clear without it ; as, 



PUXCTUATIOK. 147 

1. He has four yoke of oxen, and horses. 

2. They landed, and killed a hundred Indians. 

Note. — In sentence 1, if the comma be omitted, the sense would seem 
to be, " He has two yoke of oxen and two yoke of horses." But the term 
yoke does not apply to horses ; we speak of a span of horses, and a yoke 
of oxen. In 2, without the comma the sense might seem to be, that they 
landed the Indians and then killed them. 

447. Direction. — Punctuate the following sentences by using commas 
where they properly belong, giving reasons in each case; then use the 
sentences for a lesson in analysis and parsing. 

Sentences for Punctuation and Analysis. 

1. We should seek truth steadily patiently and perseveringly. 2. The 
little minstrel sang a song played a tune and danced a jig. 3. The con- 
tractor graded leveled and paved the street 4. Hope and fear pleasure 
and pain diversify our lives 5. No no no you can not go. 6. A youth a 
boy or a mere child could answer that question. 7. He left his wife his 
children his mansion and his titles. 8. Every afternoon the clouds rolled 
up and the sky grew black. 9. Indolence produces poverty ; and poverty 
misery. 10. Sink or swim live or die I give my heart and hand to this 
vote. 11. The horse reared and threw his rider. 12. I have a house with 
twelve rooms and out-buildings. 13. Seramis built Babylon; Dido Car- 
thage ; and Romulus Rome. 14. The troops landed and killed a hundred 
Indians. 15. By industry and perseverance we obtain the knowledge 
necessary for a useful life. 16. We may find tongues in trees books in 
the running brooks sermons in stones and good in everything. 17. Just 
before us on the side of the bank there nestled an old stone mill. 18. 
Three soft white mice lay in the old woolen hat. 19. Fine weather good 
sleighing and a fleet horse made the journey short. 20. The sick child 
called for water water water continually. 21. He will come to-day to- 
morrow or next week to remain two months. 22. For eighteen months 
without intermission this destruction raged from the gates of Madras to 
the gates of Tan j ore. 23. Far above us towered an iron-bound coast dark 
desolate barren and precipitous. 24. There mountains rise and circling 
oceans flow. 25. The sweet soft voice the light step the delicate hand 
the quiet noiseless discharge of those thousand little offices of kindness 
add greatly to the comfort of the sick. 26. A deep calm broad river rolled 
through the meadow-land and past forest field and hill and happy human 
homes. 



14:8 USES OF ARTICLES. 

CXXIV.— USES OF ARTICLES.— CONNECTED ADJECTIVES. 

448. When two adjectives are connected by a conjunction, 
care should be taken that they both properly describe the fol- 
lowing noun, or that some word shall precede them to indicate 
that the former adjective belongs to some noun understood. 

449. Two connected adjectives, neither of which is preceded 
by an article or by the adjective both, should relate to the same 
noun; as, 

1. I bought some black and white ribbon [checkered]. 

2. The farmer planted early and late potatoes [incorrect]. 

Explanation. — The potatoes mentioned in sentence 2 could not be 
both early and late ; there were tivo kinds. The sentence should be, " The 
farmer planted early potatoes and late potatoes " ; or, better, " The farmer 
planted both early and late potatoes." 

450. When two or more adjectives are used in connection, 
each modifying the name of the same thing, an article should 
be used before the first adjective only ; as, 

1. I have a black and white dog [one dog, spotted]. 

2. I have a red, white, and blue flag [one flag], 

451. But when two or more adjectives are used in connec- 
tion, each modifying the name of a different thing, the article 
is repeated with each adjective ; as, 

1. I have an old and a new hat [two hats]. 

2. I have a red, a white, and a blue flag [three flags]. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, hat is understood after old ; and. in 2, 
flag is understood after each of the adjectives red and white. 

Questions. — 1. When is it correct to say, " I have a blue and white 
scarf " ? 2. Is it correct to say, " He carried a long and short rod " 1 " We 
have some sweet and sour oranges " ? 3. When must an article be used 
before only the first of two or more connected adjectives! 4. When, 
before each of two or more connected adjectives? 5. Why is "I met a 
tall and short lady " incorrect 1 

Direction. — As a review, dictate all the sentences in this lesson as an 
exercise in punctuation, and in the use of articles. 



USES OF ARTICLES. 149 

CXXV.— USES OF ARTICLES.— CONNECTED NOUNS. 

452. The is used to refer to some particular thing or 
things ; as, " The sun rises in the east " ; " The stars sometimes 
shine brightly"; "The house on the hill faces the south" The 
is used before a singular common noun to distinguish the class 
without referring to any particular one; as, "The oak comes 
from the acorn" \ "The horse has great strength." The is used 
before an adjective of the comparative degree to intensify its 
meaning; as, "The higher we climb, the farther we can see." 
Used in this way, the is an adverb. 

453. Article repeated. — The article should be repeated be- 
fore two nouns connected by or or nor ; as, 

1. Either the owner or the tenant must pay the water- tax. 

2. He paid neither the principal nor the interest. 

3. Neither the judge nor the jury could refrain from laughter. 

4. Which may represent an animal or a thing. 

454. The article should be repeated before each of the particulars 
included in a class ; as, " Nouns have three cases — the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective." 

455. When the first of several connected nouns takes an article, it 
should generally be repeated with each of the others, and it must be 
repeated when the same form of the article is not applicable to all ; as, 

1. A man, a boy, and a horse received severe injuries. 

2. The oak, the pine, and the ash abound in this forest. 

3. An oak, a pine, and an ash shade the lawn. 

4. A horse, an ox, and a calf graze in the same field. 

5. I have just sold a house and a lot [separate property]. 

6. I have just sold a house and lot [taken together]. 

7. A man, woman, and child stood by the river [allowable]. 

8. The men, women, and children suffered alike [allowable]. 
Note. — In sentence 1, it is presumable that the individuals mentioned 

were taken separately ; i. e., they were not of the same party. The article 
is repeated to make the sense clear. In 7 and 8, it is presumable that the 
individuals mentioned were considered as belonging to one party. In such 
cases, for the sake of brevity, the custom is to omit the article before all 
but the first when the sense will be clear without it. 



150 TT8E8 OF ARTICLES. 

456. Article omitted.— The article is omitted before proper 
nouns, abstract nouns, and the names of the arts and sciences, 
and other nouns when used in such general or unlimited sense 
as not to require it ; as, 

1. Virtue seeks no reward. 3. Anger resteth in the bosom of fools. 

2. Botany treats of plants. 4. Gold abounds in Colorado. 

5. Orthography treats of the forms of letters and words. 

6. Use essence of peppermint [not the essence]. 

7. He has rheumatism [not the rheumatism]. 

8. He died of cholera [not the cholera]. 

9. I never saw that kind of bird before [not kind of a bird]. 

10. What kind of element is an adverb [not kind of an element]? 

11. We saw a strange kind of insect [not kind of an insect]. 

12. He made some sort of promise [not sort of a promise], 

Note. — The is used before plural proper nouns. The is also used be- 
fore singular proper nouns for the sake of emphasis or discrimination, and 
when it precedes an adjective denoting eminence ; as, " You have read 
of the twelve Caesars"; "The Browns called last evening"; "The Ohio 
empties into the Mississippi " ; " The immortal Washington lives in the 
hearts of his countrymen." 

Direction. — Insert the, an, a, or both in the following sentences where 
it is necessary to make the sense clear, and give the reason for each in- 
sertion : 

1. He carried large and small basket. 2. I like sweet and sour cher- 
ries. 3. This scholar has active and energetic mind. 4. Congeal contains 
long and short vowel sound. 5. We have now learned present, past, and 
future tenses. 6. I have black and white dog. 7. The farmer sold his 
large and small potatoes. 8. Where did you get that kind of melon? 
9. We have learned about definite and indefinite article. 10. We have 
learned about definite and indefinite articles. 11. We found hot and 
cold spring about twenty feet apart. 12. We found a new kind of flower 
in the woods. 

Questions. — 1. What is the use of the in " The more he ate the fatter 
he grew " ? 2. For what is the used in " The apple is a wholesome fruit " ? 
3. Give the two instances when the article should be repeated before con- 
nected nouns. 4. When should an article be omitted before a noun? 5. 
Why may we not say, " A short and tall gentleman sat in the seat beside 
us"? 



ARRANGEMENT OF ADJECTIVES, 151 

CXXVI.— ARRANGEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 

457. In arranging two or more adjectives in a series, regard 
must be had to tlie sound. They should generally be placed in 
order of length — the shortest farthest from the noun if they 
precede it, but nearest, if they follow it ; as, 

1. This proud, ambitious man gave a costly entertainment. 

2. That strong, manly, courageous youth won an honorable name. 

3. A tall, handsome, attractive lady gracefully entered the room. 

4. The whole party, weary and disheartened, returned home. 

458. When one adjective of a series unites with the noun 
more closely in sense than the others, it should stand next to 
the noun without regard to the length — a descriptive nearer 
than a limiting adjective ; as, 

1. That wealthy merchant drives a beautiful white horse. 

2. An ugly pet dog bit that unfortunate old blind man. 

3. Many thoughtless, inconsiderate young men spend money foolishly. 

4. The company erected an expensive wooden building. 

459. The adjectives that most frequently unite closely in sense with 
their nouns are those indicating age, color, use, infirmity, and the materials 
of which things are made, these ranking in closeness of relation in the order 
here given — the last bearing the closest relation. These adjectives denote 
qualities that are inseparable from the things they describe, and when 
used with their nouns they often suggest a compound term. We say, 
" Please to pass the bread basket [bread-basket]. Also, the idea of color can 
not be separated from the thing possessing the color. In the sentence — 

He drove a beautiful white horse, 
the words ichite horse suggest an animal in the same way that the words 
black man suggest a negro. It is plain, therefore, that beautiful does not 
modify the noun horse only, but the whole idea contained in the term 
white horse In the sentence — 

An ugly pet dog bit that unfortunate old blind man, 
the adjective ugly modifies pet dog, and pet modifies dog ; that modifies 
unfortunate old blind man ; unfortunate modifies old blind man ; old 
modifies blind man\ blind modifies man. In a succession of adjectives 
like this, each of which modifies the following adjectives taken with the 
noun, as one whole, commas are not required, no conjunction being omitted. 



152 ARRANGEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 

These adjectives do not indicate distinct qualities, as do adjectives that are 
connected by a conjunction [440, 5]. 

Direction. — Examine each of the following sentences, and determine 
which adjectives indicate age, color, use, infirmity, or materials. Give 
reasons for the arrangement of the adjectives, and also for the use of 
commas, or for their omission when two or more adjectives are used in 
succession : 

1. A careless expressman broke that beautiful marble statue. 

2. That poor, industrious old blind man makes good baskets. 

3. Fragrant red roses scented the room. 

4. That brave, noble, patriotic man bears an excellent reputation. 

5. Large feathery snow-flakes filled the air. 

6. Large yellow pumpkins covered the ground. 

Direction. — Re-write the following sentences, arrange the adjectives 
properly, and punctuate ; give reasons for arrangement and punctuation : 

1. We like little pretty flowers. 

2. The cartman sold a black blind old horse. 

3. Red beautiful apples covered the ground. 

4. The society erected a marble costly new fountain. 

5. The wooden old yellow building tumbled down. 

6. Mary found a silk lady's black glove. 

Direction. — Form sentences, using the following adjectives properly 
arranged before the nouns with which they are connected. Grive reasons 
for the arrangement and punctuation : 

( Swiss, ten ) . , _ ( Round, ten ) x . . 

1. < , ' ,, [ watches. 3. ] , tl [ tables. 

( gold, small ) ( wooden, small ) 

j Red, sweet ) j Wooden, new ) 

( small, ,some J ^ ( white, handsome ) 



Sentences for Punctuation and Analysis. 

460. 1. The rain waters the fields and farms, fills the streams, rivers, 
and lakes, and furnishes drink for men and cattle, and all creatures on the 
earth. 2. The earth moves around the sun and the moon moves around 
the earth. 3. On this march, we traversed almost the whole circuit of the 
hills around Jerusalem. 4. The largest and the most delicious fruits grow 
on the most thrifty trees. 5. The poor and the rich, the weak and the 
strong, the young and the old, have one common Father. 



VERBS-REGULAR AXD IRREGULAR. 



153 



CXXVn.— REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

461. Besides the present and past tense-forms, there belong 
to a verb two other forms that are not real verbs because 
neither of them alone can be used with a subject to make an 
assertion. These forms are called particijjles. 



Regular Verbs. 



PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


Wish, 


wished, 


wishing, 


wished. 


Peel, 


peeled, 


peeling, 


peeled. 


Reap, 


reaped, 


reaping, 


reaped. 


Slip, 


slipped, 


slipping, 


slipped. 




Irregit 


Uar Verbs. 




PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


Arise,* 


arose, 


arising, 


arisen. 


Break, 


broke, 


breaking, 


broken. 


Begin, 


began, 


beginning, 


begun. 


Be, or am, 


was, 


being, 


been. 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


chosen. 


Come, 


came, 


coming, 


come. 


Do, 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eating, 


eaten. 


Give, 


gave, 


giving, 


given. 


Have, 


had, 


having, 


had. 


Know, 


knew, 


knowing, 


known. 


See, 


saw, 


seeing, 


seen. 



462. The present participle is so called because it represents an act 
as going on at the time referred to by the predicate-verb in the sentence. 
It is always formed by adding ing to the verb-root. 

463. The past participle is so called because it represents an act as 
finished at the time referred to. This participle (as well as the past tense) 
is variously formed ; as, arisen, eaten, chosen, done, by adding n, en, or 
ne either with or without change of vowels ; or it is tormed by simply 
changing a vowel in the verb-root ; as, begun, from begin. 



* For complete list of irregular verbs, see [764]. 



11 



154 VERBS— REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 

The verbs in the first list are called regular verbs, because they 
form their past tense and past participle in a regular way — by always 
adding ed to the verb-root. The verbs in the second list are called 
irregular verbs, because they do not form their past tense and past 
participle in any regular way. 

464. Definition. — A regular verb is a verb that forms its 
past tense and past participle by adding ed to the verb-root. 

465. Definition. — An irregular verb is a verb that does 
not form its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the 
verb-root. 

466. From the verb-root, there are derived (as we see) three 
other forms, the past tense, the present participle, and the 
past participle. These four forms are called the four prin- 
cipal parts of the verb because, from these, other forms of a 
verb are derived by means of auxiliaries. 

Questions. — 1. How many principal parts has a verb! 2. What is a 
regular verb ! 3. An irregular verb f 4. How is the present participle of 
a verb always formed? 5. How are the past tense and past participle 
always formed ! 6. Is there any regular way of forming the past tense 
and past participle of an irregular verb ! 7. How are the past tense and 
past participle of choose formed! 8. Of beginl 9. Of cornel 10. Of 
eat% 11. Givel 12. Know% 

Remark. — Most of the verbs in our language are regular in form; 
therefore no list of them need be given. 



CXXVIII.— THE USE OF AUXILIARIES. 

467. Although the present and past participles imply action, 
neither of them can be used as a verb to make an assertion 
unless accompanied by an auxiliary. 

It would not make sense to say — 

1. James writing his composition. 

2. The boys broken the oars. 

3. Mary chosen Longfellow's poems. 

4. They eaten dinner before our arrival 



THE USE OF A UXILIARIES. 155 

It is correct to say — 

1. James is writing his composition. 

2. The boys have broken the oars, 

3. Mary has chosen Longfellow's poems. 

4. They had eaten dinner before our arrival. 
Explanation. — In sentence 1, the auxiliary is is correctly used with the 

participle writing, thus making the progressive form, is writing. In 2, 
3, and 4, have, has and had are correctly used with the past participles 
broken, chosen, and eaten, respectively, thus making the compound form 
of the verb. In have broken, broken is the principal part of the verb. 

468. Any form of the verb be (am, is, are, was, were, been) used with 
the present participle, as in 1, makes a verb of the progressive form. 

Direction. — Parse only such verbs as are in the present, past, and 
future tenses, 

469. When have, has, or had is used as an auxiliary, only the 
past participle can be used as the principal part of the verb. 

Explanation. — " We have saw the falls " is incorrect, because the past 
tense saw is used with an auxiliary, to form a verb. 

Direction. — Complete the verb in each of the following sentences by 
using in the blank space the correct form of the verb in brackets at the 

end : 

1. I have not him to-day. [see.] 

2. I have the work already, [do.] 

3. He has home, [go ] 

4. The tree has across the street, [fall.] 

5. He has for the books, [come.] 

6. I have him a long time, [know.] 

Caution. — The past participle must not be used for the past tense of 
the verb, nor must it ever be used alone as a verb. 

Direction. — Correct the following, and give reasons : 

1. I done that work in an hour. 

2. I seen him yesterday in the park. 

Cantion. — The present tense should not be used to denote a past act. 
Direction. — Correct the following, and give reasons : 

1. I see him yesterday at the fair. 

2. He come home last week. 

3. That move give you the advantage. 



156 TEE USE OF AUXILIARIES. 

470. Other auxiliaries may be used with have or had to 
form one verb : 

Note. — Do not require pupils to give the tense of the verbs in these 
sentences : 

1. You should have gone before. 

2. He might have come earlier. 

3. I may have seen him once before. 

4. He must have known better. 

5. How could we have done it sooner? 

6. They will have eaten dinner before the arrival of the train. 

471. Have, has, and had, as auxiliaries, are used only with 
the past participle, and this participle is never used as a verb 
unless joined with these auxiliaries, or with some form of the 
verb be. 

472. When thou is used as a subject, the verbs take such forms as : 
goest, hast gone ; keepeth, hadst kept ; shalt keep ; shouldst keep, etc. ; as, 
" Thou hast kept the best wine until the end of the feast." 

Questions. — 1. What is the verb in 1, of the last six ? 2. What is its 
principal part ? 3. Considered by itself, what part of speech is this prin- 
cipal part 1 4. With what auxiliaries must the past participle be used to 
become the principal part of a verb f 5. How many auxiliaries belong to 
the verb in 1 1 6. Of how many words is the whole verb composed ? 7. 
Which are the principal parts of the verbs in 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 ? 8. What 
errors are made in the sentences under [469]? 9. Of what is the progres- 
sive form of the verb composed ? 



CXXIX.— APPOSITION. 

473. It has been seen that nouns and pronouns in the pos- 
sessive case are used to modify other nouns ; as, 

Washington's forces crossed the Delaware. 

474. A noun is also used in an adjective sense when, for 
the sake of explanation, it is a repetition of a subject, an ob- 
ject, or of a noun or pronoun denoting possession ; as, 

1. Webster, the statesman, lived in Massachusetts. 

2. Webster, the lexicographer, once taught a school. 



APPOSITION. 157 

8. The tyrant Nero committed many cruel acts. 

4. The Romans hated the tyrant Nero. 

5. They assailed his, my father's, honor. 

6. Paul, the apostle, lived in Nero's reign. 

Explanation. — Statesman (in 1) is used in an adjective sense because it 
explains the noun Webster by showing which man by that name is meant. 
Nero (in 3) is a repetition of tyrant for the purpose of explanation. In 4, 
Nero explains the object tyrant. In 5, father's explains his by showing 
whose honor. 

475. Nouns used, like statesman, lexicographer, Nero, and father's, 
in the preceding sentences, to explain other nouns or pronouns, are modi- 
fying words. They are called explanatory nouns ; also appositive nouns, 
or nouns in apposition. Apposition means placed near to, and these 
nouns are placed near the words they explain ; i. e., in close connection — 
not joined by any connective word. 

Questions. — 1. What kind of noun is statesman on account of its use in 
sentence 11 2. Lexicographer in 2? 3. Nero in 3 and 4? 4. Does Nero 
explain a subject, or an object, in each of 3 and 4 % 5. By what is Webster 
modified in 1 and in 2 ? 6. By what is tyrant modified in 3 and 4 ? 7. 
By what is his modified in sentence 5 ? 

Direction. — ^Mention the explanatory nouns in the following sentences, 
and also the words modified by them : 

1. I Paul saw these things. 

2. Franklin, the eminent philosopher, learned the printer's trade. 

3. We, the people of the United States, do ordain this Constitution. 

4. David, the son of Jesse, slew Groliath, the Philistine. 
Explanation. — In 1, the explanatory noun Paul is unaccompanied by 

modifiers, and is therefore not set off by commas. In 2, son is modified 
by the and of Jesse, and is set off by commas. 

476. Definition. — An explanatory (or appositive) phrase is 
one composed of an explanatory noun taken with all its modi- 
fiers; as, "the son of Jesse." 

Remark. — When the appositive noun has one or more modifiers, the 
whole phrase is the modifying element. The explanatory noun is the 
principal word in the phrase. 

477. Punctuation Rule. — An explanatory (or appositive) 
phrase must be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas ; 



158 APPOSITION— PUNCTUA TION. 

but when the explanatory term is unaccompanied by a modifier, 
no comma is required. 

Direction. — Select the explanatory phrases in the preceding sentences 
and give the reasons for the use of commas. Also mention the word 
modified by each phrase. 

Questions. — 1. What noun is in apposition with I in 1 ? 2. With David 
in 2 f 3. With Goliath I 4. With Franklin ? 5. With we % 6. What is an 
appositive phrase % 7. What is its office % 8. What is the rule for punct- 
uating an appositive phrase 1 9. What other kind of phrase is used like 
an adjective? 10. What is an explanatory noun? 11. What is its office? 

CXXX.-MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

1. The Eomans hated the tyrant Nero. 

478. This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is 
" The Romans," and the predicate, " hated the tyrant Nero" The simple 
subject Romans is modified by the adjective the. The predicate- verb 
hated is completed by the object complement tyrant, which is modified by 
the adjective the and the appositive noun Nero. 

2. The Franks, a warlike people of Germany, gave their name to 
France. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is, "The 
Franks, a warlike people of Germany," and the predicate, "gave their 
name to France." The simple subject Franks is modified by the adjective 
the and the appositive phrase a warlike people of Germany, in which 
phrase the principal word is people, modified by the adjectives a and 
warlike, and also by the phrase of Germany. The predicate-verb gave is 
modified by the phrase to France. The object name is modified by the 
possessive pronoun their. 

Sentences for Punctuation and Analysis. 

1. My friend the old professor has resigned his position. 

2. Experience the great teacher makes no allowance for stupidity. 

3. I Darius King of Persia have decreed it. 

4. Washington the great hero and statesman enjoyed the confidence 

of the people. 

5. Peter the hermit resembled Peter the apostle. 

6. The steamer Oregon sank near the shore of Long Island. 



APPOSITION. 159 

CXXXI.— CASE OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION. 

479. An appositive noun jor pronoun depends for its case 
on the word which it explains ; but it frequently differs from 
such word in gender, person., and number ; as, 

1. The lecturer referred to Sydney Smith, him of witty memory. 

2. We stopped at my brother John's. 

3. I bought the paper at Smith's, the book-seller. 

4. I, your best friend, will not desert you. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, Sydney Smith being the object of the 
preposition to, the appositive pronoun must be in the objective form him 
— not in the nominative form he. In 2, if John be omitted, brother 
would take the possessive sign [brother's house], John is introduced to 
explain, by showing which brother, thus becoming an appositive noun ; but 
if both possessives were fully written [we stopped at my brother's John's 
house] there would be an unpleasant repetition of the s-sound. For the 
sake of euphony, therefore, the possessive sign is omitted from brother. 
Brother is in the possessive case, and John's is in apposition with brother. 
In 3, store is understood after Smith's and book-seller. Omit Smith's, 
and book-seller will take the possessive sign [book-seller's store]. In 4, 
by using the name friend, the person speaks of himself. Therefore, friend 
is in the third person, while I is in the first person. 

480. Rule for Construction. — An appositive noun or pro- 
noun must be in the same case as the word which it explains. 

Direction. — Analyze the preceding and the following sentences, and 
parse the appositive nouns in this and the preceding lessons according to 
the models here given : 

1. He visited his brother John. 

2. My friend, the lawyer, lost his case. 

3. William found his brother John's book. 

4. They called him a hero. 

5. They elected him President. 

481. Models for Parsing. — John is a proper noun, mas., third, sing., 
and is in apposition with brother in the objective case. 

Lawyer is a common noun, mas., third, sing., and is in apposition 
with friend in the nom. case. 

John's is in apposition with brother in the poss. case. 
Hero is in apposition with him in the obj. case. 



160 APPOSITION.— EMPHATIC PRONOUNS. 

Note. — The verbs elect, make, name, call, seem to take two objects, 
the second of which, like President (in 5) is called, by some authors, the 
factitive object, because it denotes that which the person is made to be. 
Factitive comes from the Latin facer e, to make. 



CXXXII.— EMPHATIC PRONOUNS. 

482. Sometimes a compound personal pronoun is placed in 
apposition with a noun or pronoun for the sake of emphasis. 
Such a pronoun may be properly called an emphatic pronoun ; 

as, 

1. The king himself has decreed it. 

2. She selected the goods herself, 

483. Nouns repeated for the sake of force or emphasis are 
said to be in apposition ; as, 

1. I met a fool, a crazy fool. 

2. " Treason, treason ! " shouted the multitude. 

484. Sometimes a noun is joined with another in a sort of 
apposition by the conjunction as, and also by or ; as, - 

1. He received a medal as a reward. 

2. The puma, or American lion, inhabits South America. 
Note. — When or, as in 2, connects equivalent terms, it is called ex- 
planatory or, and, with the equivalent explanatory term, it should be set 
off by commas. 

485. The appositive term, when only a single word, should be set off 
by commas when it becomes necessary to make the meaning clear ; as, 

1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I. 
Explanation. — Without the commas, the sentence may be taken to 
mean that, of several Raleighs, her favorite Raleigh was beheaded. 

Direction. — Write the following sentences, underlining the appositive 
noun or pronoun, and punctuating properly : 

1. Hope the star of life never sets. 2. We saw Dr. Edwards him of 
Union College. 3. They regard winter as the season of domestic enjoy- 
ment. 4. The tadpole or polliwog becomes a frog. 5. Homer wrote two 
great works the Iliad and the Odyssey. 6. Jones as my attorney sold the 
land. 7. We girls will start now. 8. The girls will not wait for us boys. 
9. Out of this nettle danger we pluck the flower safety. 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 161 

486. The explanatory term does not always follow the word 
explained; as, 

1. A prompt, decisive man, no breath our father wasted. 

2. As a statesman, he had great ability. 

Direction. — In each of the following sentences, select the appositive 
word and give its case : 

1. We girls belong to the third class. 2. When shall we girls meet 
again ? 3. This play-ground belongs to us boys. 4. Dom Pedro, the Bra- 
zilian emperor, once visited the United States. 5. My son William has 
entered college. 6. As a mathematician, he has no superior. 7. He him- 
self did not know the answer. 

The Possessive Case. 

487. Special Rule 1. — When nouns denoting possession are 
in apposition, the noun which they limit being expressed, the 
last word takes the possessive sign ; as, 

1. The Emperor Napoleon's army march to victory. 

2. We visited Webster the statesman's grave. 

But when the limited word is understood, the possessive sign is added 
to the first noun. 

1. I bought the paper at Smith's the book-seller. 

488. Special Rule 2. — To indicate common possession the 
sign is added to the last of two or more possessives modifying 
the same word ; as, 

1. Reed and Kellogg's Grammar. 

2. Lord and Taylor's dry-goods' store. 

But when common possession is not indicated, each word takes the 
possessive sign ; as, 

1. Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries. 

2. Mary's and Lucy's books. 

489. Special Rule 3. — When two or more consecutive words 
are taken together to denote but one possessor, the last word 
takes the possessive sign ; as, 

1. The heir-at-law's case. 

2. The Queen of England's crown. 



162 synthesis: ~ 

Direction. — Change the following sentences so that possession in each 
case shall be expressed by using the possessive sign ; and in the last two 
sentences in hvo ways — one expressing common possession, and the other 
separate possession : 

1. The speech of the king was applauded. 2. America was discovered 
during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 3. They were mentioning 
the victories of Grant and Sherman. 4. We passed the store of Lord and 
Taylor. 5. The death of the Duke of Manchester occurred fti 1843. 6. 
The mother of the wife of Peter lay sick of a fever. 7. The reign of 
William and Mary was one of the most distinguished in English history. 
8. They brought the head of John the Baptist on a charger. 9. Do this 
for the sake of David thy father. 10. The books belonging to Sarah and 
Fanny are new. 11. The baggage belonging to John and William was lost. 

Eemark. — The expressions, "some one else's books" and "somebody 
else's affairs," are considered good English ; but they are awkward, and 
should be avoided. Say, " The books belong to some one else " ; " He is 
always meddling with the affairs of somebody else." 



CXXXIH.-SYNTHESIS. 

490. Direction. — Combine the following statements into a simple sen- 
tence containing one subject, one verb, one object complement, an apposi- 
tive phrase, and prepositional phrases, one of them being elliptical : 

Capt. Webb lost his life. 

He was a noted English swimmer. 

He lost his life in the whirlpool. 

It happened last week. 

The whirlpool is in the Niagara River. 

It is below the falls. 

Direction. — Combine the following statements into a simple sentence 
containing one subject, one verb, a compound appositive phrase, a single 
noun in apposition, prepositional phrases. Abbreviate Maryland and New 
Hampshire properly : 

Major Geo. H. Chandler is critically ill. 

He is afflicted with neuralgia of the heart. 

He is a lawyer. 

He is the brother of Secretary Chandler. 

He lives in Baltimore. 

Baltimore is in Maryland. 



THE USE OF SIT, SET, LIE, AND LAY. 163 

He is at the home of his brother. 
His brothers home is in Canterbury. 
Canterbury is in- New Hampshire. 

Direction, — Combine the following statements into a simple sentence 

containing one subject, four verbs, and prepositional phrases. The second 

verb must have two object complements, and the third and fourth, one 

each : 

A whirlwind passed through Onondaga. 

It also passed through Leslie. 

Onondaga and Leslie are in Ingham County. 

Ingham County is in Michigan. 

This happened on Monday. 

It was about noon. 

The whirlwind wrecked fifteen houses. 

It also wrecked fifteen barns. 

It killed three persons. 

It fatally injured another. 



CXXXTV.-HOW TO USE SIT, SET, LIE, AND LAY. 

PRES. TENSE. PAST TENSE. PRES. PARTICIPLE. PAST PARTICIPLE. 

Sit, sat, sitting, sat. 
Set, set, setting, set- 
Lie, lay, lying, lain. 
Lay, laid, laying, laid. 

491. Lay and set are transitive verbs, and must be used 
in a transitive sense. When we put anything dotvn, we lay 
or set it down. 

Lie and sit are intransitive verbs, and must be used in 
an intransitive sense. When we rest, we sit or lie down. 

Direction. — Fill the blanks in the following sentences, using one of 
these four verbs properly : 

1. I sometimes down on the lounge in the afternoon. 2. Yester- 
day I down and slept an hour. 3. After I had down yesterday 

my friend called. 4. Mary the lamp on the table a few moments 

ago. 5. We on the bench by the brook yesterday. 6. We often 

there and read. 7. I the paper on the table only a moment ago. 8. 

down on the sofa and rest awhile. 9. on this chair ; the other 



164 ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT, 

is broken. 10. I have on this bed for two long weeks. 11. I 

the book on the table and there it yet. 

Remark. — It is correct to say, " I laid the book on the table and there 
it lies yet," because, in the latter part of the sentence, the act is referred 
to the book. It is also correct to say, " The sleepy little child laid her 
head on my lap." 

Direction. — Fill the blanks with any of the four verbs (or their parti- 
ciples) that will fill out the sense in the following composition : 

On entering school this morning, I on the back seat and my 

books on the floor beside me. When I down a slate was on the 

desk, which the teacher took and on her table ; she also took an ink- 
stand and it on her desk. Mary Brown's baby sister became tired of 

still, so she down on the seat and her head on Mary's lap. 

When she awoke she up and rubbed her eyes. After school, on ar- 
riving home, I down on the lounge to read, but soon fell asleep. 

When I awoke, I found that I had an hour. I then my book on 

the table and by the window. I had there but a minute, when 

the bell rang for tea. 



CXXXV.-ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT. 

492. Most intransitive verbs are complete verbs; that is, 
they do not require a complement to fill out the meaning ; as, 

1. He arose early. 

2. The swan swims gracefully. 

Nouns and Pronouns as Attribute Complements. 

493. Some intransitive verbs, however, are incomplete verbs, 
and require a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective to complete the 
predicate ; as, 

1. Franklin was a philosopher. 

2. That industrious boy became a prosperous man. 

3. My friend is a merchant. 

4. These boys are good students. 

5. The Greeks were a warlike people. 

6. I am he. 

7. He has been a bad boy. 



ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT, 165 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, the noun philosopher completes the pred- 
icate, and ascribes or attributes a quality of mind to the person named by 
the subject. Philosopher is therefore called the attribute complement 
of ivas. In sentence 3, the noun merchant attributes condition [in life] 
to the subject friend, and is the attribute complement of is. In sentence 
6, the pronoun he is the attribute complement of am, and refers to i". 
In 7, boy is the attribute complement, and refers to he. 

494. There is a shade of resemblance between the attributive and the 
appositive use of a noun. The difference is, that in the attributive use 
the quality or condition denoted by the noun is affirmed ; whereas, in the 
appositive use, the quality or condition is assumed ; as, 

1. John Milton was an eminent poet. 

2. John Milton, the eminent poet, was also a philosopher. 

The Adjective as Attribute Complement. 

495. An adjective, as an attribute complement, ascribes 
quality to the subject ; as, 

1. The lion is fearless. 3. Some apples are sweet. 

2. Snow is white. 4. The man became insane. 

Explanation. — The adjective fearless, in 1, completes the predicate, and 
refers to the subject lion. 

Note. — The adjective sweet expresses an attribute [quality] called 
sweetness. In the sentence, " I have a sweet apple," the attribute is im- 
plied, or assumed ; but in " This apple is sweet," the attribute is affirmed 
of the subject, and the adjective sweet, being used in the predicate, is 
called the predicate adjective or adjective attribute. Although fearless 
(in sentence 1) refers to the subject, yet, not being in the same construc- 
tion with it, this adjective really modifies animal understood — a noun in 
the same construction. 

496. Inverted, or rhetorical, order is often produced by placing the 
predicate adjective before the verb ; as, 

1. Wide is the gate, and narrow is the way. 

2. Dim grow its fancies, forgotten they lie. 

3. Sad and weary was the march to Valley Forge. 

4. Fiercer and brighter became the lightning. 

5. Faithful was he to the last. 

6. Wise are all his ways. 



166 ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT. 

CXXXVI.— HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE ATTRIBUTE 
COMPLEMENT. 

497. An object complement names a person or thing en- 
tirely different from the subject ; as, 

1. Brutus stabbed Ccesar. 2. Columbus discovered America. 

498. An attribute complement, when a noun or pronoun, is 
only another name for the subject ; as, 

1. Brutus was an assassin. 2. Columbus was a navigator. 

An attribute complement, whether a noun, a pronoun, pr an adjective, 
always points to the subject. 

Direction. — In each of the following sentences, name the complement, 
tell whether it is an attribute or an object, and state its part of speech : 

1. The prize was a silver medal. 11. The man is very wealthy. 

2. Byron was an English poet. 12. The moth is an insect. 

3. Robbers attacked the trav- 13. The general led his army to 

elers. victory. 

4. The children were sick. 14. I am weary. 

5. Grant was a great general. 15. Camels carry heavy burdens. 

6. The wind blew fiercely. 16. It is she. 

7. My father was a soldier. 17. Camels are patient animals. 

8. You will be late. 18. I am he. 

9. We chose him as our leader. 19. 'Tis I, Hamlet, the Dane. 

10. He injured his hand. 20. His remark was inappropriate. 

499. A predicate noun or pronoun must be in the same 
case as the subject to which it refers ; as, " I am lie " ; " It 
was she" [not her]. 

500. Definition. — An attribute complement is a noun, pro- 
noun, or adjective, completing the predicate of a sentence, and 
relating to the subject. 

501. Rule for Construction. — A noun or pronoun used as 
an attribute complement must be in the same case as the sub- 
ject to which it refers. 

502. The attribute complement, when a noun or a pronoun, 
is a sort of repetition of the subject, and is often called the 



ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT. 167 

predicate nominative* An adjective attribute is often called 
the predicate adjective. 

Direction. — Fill the blank space in each of the following sentences, 
with the proper form of the personal pronoun indicated in the brackets, 
and give a reason for each choice. Do not use the sentences for analysis : 

1. That can not be [sing, f .]. 5. If I were I would not dc 

2. It was who saw you [s. m.]. it [s. f .]. 

3. It was I saw [p. f.]. 6. I know that was [s. f.]. 

4. It could not have been 7. I would go if I were [2ds.]. 

[s. m.] 8. That is in the hall [s. f.]. 

Questions. — 1. How does an object differ from an attribute noun or 
'pronoun % 2. By what other name is the attribute complement sometimes 
known % 3. Which form of a personal pronoun must be used as an attri- 
bute complement % 4. Mention all the nominative forms of the personal 
pronouns. 5. Mention all the objective forms. 6. Which forms are used 
as complements of transitive verbs % 7. What kind of verbs may be fol- 
lowed by predicate nouns% 8. In how many relations may the pronoun I 
be used in a sentence % 9. Why is it necessary to distinguish object and 
attribute complements % 



CXXXVII.-MODELS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

1. Columbus was a bold navigator. 

503. Models for Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The 
simple subject Columbus is unmodified. The entire predicate is " was a 
bold navigator." The predicate-verb was is completed by the attribute 
complement navigator, which is modified by the adjectives a and bold. 
2. These apples are very sour. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. " These apples " is the entire 
subject, and the predicate is " are very sour." The simple subject apples 
is modified by the adjective these. The predicate- verb are is completed 
by the adjective complement sow\\ which is itself modified by the adverb 
very. 

* The attribute complement following an infinitive verb is sometimes a repetition 
of an object ; as, ki We knew him to be an impostor. ," In such a use impostor could 
not be called a predicate nominative [712]. 

t In analysis, sour is spoken of in connection with the predicate, but in parsing it 
is spoken of as referring to the subject. 



168 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Sentences for Parsing. 

1. I am he. 

2. That industrious boy became a prosperous man. 

3. The snow is white.* 

504. Models for Parsing. — (1) In 1, he is a personal pronoun, mascu- 
line, third, singular, and is in the nominative case, being the attribute 
complement of the intransitive verb am. (2) In 2, man is a common 
noun, masculine, third, singular, and is in the nominative case, being the 
attribute complement of the intransitive verb became. (3) In 3, white is a 
predicate adjective, completing the predicate and referring to the subject. 
(4) In 1, am is an irregular intransitive verb in the present tense, and 
agrees with its subject / in the first person, and singular number. 

Sentences for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Disappointment is the common fate of man. 

2. "The way was long, the wind was cold, 

The minstrel was infirm and old." 

3. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

4. The poetry of earth is never dead. 

5. The French emperor, Napoleon, was a great general. 

6. There is no substitute in this world for thorough-going, ardent, 

and sincere earnestness. 

7. Thomson, the author of "The Seasons," is a delightful poet. 



CXXXVIII.— INCOMPLETE INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

505. The principal incomplete intransitive verbs are le (am, 
is j ivas, are, were), appear, seem, become, feel, look, taste, and 
smell. 

506. Singular Forms. — Am, is, and was are singular forms, 
and must be used with singular subjects. 

507. Plural Forms. — Are and were are plural forms, and 
must be used with plural subjects. 

* In such sentences as " Snow is white, 11 some authors call is the copula and white 
the predicate, because whiteness is predicated of snow. The verb is said to connect 
or unite the attribute to the subject. But this is an unnecessary extension of analysis 
and multiplication of terms. 



INCOMPLETE INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 169 

508. Be (generally used with an auxiliary) has no change of 
form in its use with a subject ; as, " He will be late " ; " They 
tvill be late"; " If he be absent." 

509. Each of the verbs appear, feel, look, smell, taste, and 
become, has two meanings — one implying action on the part of 
the subject, and the other not implying action. When these 
verbs do not imply action, they require an attribute complement. 

510. The verbs feel, smell, taste, and become are sometimes 
used in a transitive sense, and take object complements. 

Direction. — In each of the following sentences determine whether the 
verb is used in a transitive or an intransitive sense, and give reasons : 

1. The bluebird appears suddenly in the spring. 
The child appears weary. 

2. We looked an hour for the lost ring. 
The flowers looked beautiful. 

3. We smelled the odor of the flowers. 
The flowers smelled sweet. 

4. We tasted sulphur in the water. 
The milk tasted sour. 

5. He felt the rebuke keenly. 
He felt very sick. 

6. The dress becomes her well. 

The boy became a prosperous man. 

Questions. — 1. Which are the principal incomplete verbs? 2. Which 
forms of the verb be are singular ? 3. Which are plural % 4. Which form 
may be used with either a singular or a plural subject? 5. What is a 
transitive verb % 6. What is an intransitive verb % 7. What form of a pro- 
noun is used as an attribute ? 8. To what does a predicate adjective relate ? 

511. The Copula. — The verb be or am may be used as an incom- 
plete verb : 

(1) To predicate quality of the subject ; as, 

1. I am feeble. 3. He had been sick. 

2. William is healthy. 4. They were happy. 

(2) To predicate identity, as, 

1. John is a clerk. 3. Franklin was a philosopher. 

2. They were good friends. 4. William is an honest lad. 

12 



170 ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB? 

In these two uses the verb be or am, in its different forms, is called a 
copula, because it couples or links the complement to the subject. Each 
of the verbs appear, become, continue, seem, feel, smell, stand, sit, etc., is 
also sometimes used as a copula. 

512. The verb be or am may be used as a complete verb to predicate 
existence; as, 

1. Before Abraham was, 1 am. 

2. And there was Mary Magdalene and the other Mary. 

3. There was a certain rich man in Damascus. 

4. God is eternally, and ever shall be. 

Note. — In the use of the verb be as a copula, a word or a phrase com- 
pleting the predicate refers to the subject. But a word or phrase used 
with be, when it denotes mere existence, modifies the verb. 



CXXXIX.— ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB? 

513. Care must be taken not to use adverbs instead of ad- 
jectives as the complements of incomplete verbs. 
It is correct to say — 

1. He looks hind [cast of countenance]. 

2. He' looked kindly at the child [manner of looking]. 

3. He feels anxious about his business [state of mind]. 

4. He feels his loss keenly [manner of feeling]. 

5. The rose smells sweet [quality of odor — not manner of smelling]. 

6. His voice sounds harsh [quality of voice]. 

7. The man remained silent [state — no action]. 

8. The soldiers looked gay [appearance — not manner of looking]. 

9. We arrived safe [state — not manner of arriving]. 
10. They escaped all safe to the land [state]. 

Direction. — In each of the following sentences, determine which word 
in italics is the correct one, and tell what part of speech it is. Tell the 
part of speech of each italicized word in the preceding sentences : 

1. He looks mean or meanly ? 

2. He looks feebly or feeble% 

3. The lawn looks beautiful or beautifully % 

4. He looks bad or badly [meaning ill]? 

5. He feels wretchedly or wretched^ 

6. The music sounds sweet or sweetly ■? 



ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 171 

7. Magnesia feels smooth or smoothly $ 

8. He sat silently or silent in his chair? 

9. He is nicely, I thank you [incorrect]. 

Remark. — This error in the use of nicely (in 9) is often made by edu- 
cated people. 

The attribute complement may be a phrase ; as, 

1. His action was in bad taste [inappropriate]. 

2. He is without fear [fearless]. 

3. George was in fault. 

4. The slanderer is beneath contempt. 

5. The general is in fine health. 

6. The watchmen are on their guard. 

7. The patient is in distress. 

8. His character is above suspicion. 

9. The old lady is in excellent spirits. 

Direction. — Select in each of the preceding sentences the attribute 
phrase. 

CXL.— VERBS.-ACTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 

514. Verbs in general are separated into tivo classes, transi- 
tive and intransitive [107]. Intransitive verbs are of two 
kinds, complete and incomplete [107, f. n.]. 

515. A transitive verb has two forms — one representing its 
subject as acting, and the other representing its subject as 
receiving the act ; as, 

1. The officer seized the thief. 3. We have picked the berries. 

2. The thief was seized by the officer. 4. The berries have been picked. 

Explanation. — In 1, the subject officer is represented as acting. The 
object thief is the receiver of the act, and, when (to express the same sense 
in another way) thief becomes the subject of sentence 2, it still remains 
the receiver of the act. The subject (in sentence 1) appears in sentence 2 
as the object of a preposition. The subject we (in 3) is entirely omitted 
in 4. The verb seized (in 1) is the past tense of seize ; but seized (in 2) 
is the past participle used with the auxiliary teas. Seized (in 1) repre- 
sents the subject officer as acting, but was seized (a different form of the 
verb) represents its subject thief as receiving the act. This variation in 



172 PASSIVE VOICE. 

the form and use of a transitive verb showing whether the subject acts 
or is acted upon is called voice. The form seized or have picked is 
the active voice of the verb. "Was seized or have been picked is 
the passive* voice. 

516. A verb in the passive voice is formed by using the 
past participle of a transitive verb with any form of the 
verb be, either with or without other auxiliaries. 

517. Definition. — Voice is the variation in the use and 
form of a transitive verb that shows whether the subject acts 
or receives the act. 

The active voice represents the subject as performing the act. 
The passive voice represents the subject as receiving the act. 

Questions. — 1. How many kinds of intransitive verbs are there? 2. 
How many kinds of transitive verbs % 3. What is voice ? 4. Active voice % 
5. Passive voice ? 6. How is the passive voice of a verb formed ? 7. What 
kind of verbs may have the passive voice % 8. What part of the sentence 
containing a verb in the active voice becomes the subject of a verb in the 
passive voice % 

CXLI.-THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

518. The passive voice is a grammatical device for varying 
the language ; for concealing the actor when we wish to direct 
special attention to the act and its recipient ; for speaking of 
the act and its result when the actor is unknown. 

519. A sentence containing a verb in the active voice is 
changed to a sentence containing a verb in the passive voice, 
by making the direct object of the verb in the former, the 
subject of the verb in the latter ; as, 

1. Columbus discovered Amer- 1. America was discovered by 

ica. Columbus. 

2. Whitney invented the cotton- 2. The cotton-gin was invented 

gin, by Whitney. 

3. The hunter shot an eagle. 3. An eagle was shot by the hunter. 

* Passive = suffering or enduring, and a verb in the passive voice represents its 
subject as receiving or enduring the act. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 173 

Note. — The subject of the active verb may be omitted entirely in the 
sentence containing the passive, when it will sound awkward to retain it, 
or when it would add nothing definite or necessary. 

Parsing Model. 
1. The fox was caught by the hound. 

520. Was caught is an irregular, transitive verb, passive voice, past 
tense, and agrees with its subject fox in the third, singular. [Parse only 
such verbs as are in the present, past, or future tenses.] 

Direction. — Determine whether the verb in each of the following sen- 
tences is in the active voice or in the passive voice ; re-write each, chang- 
ing the verbs in the active voice to the passive, and those in the passive 
voice to the active. Analyze ; parse the verbs in the present, past, and 
future tenses: 

1. A careless boy broke the window. 2. Pompey was conquered by 
Caesar. 3. Will you return the book to me 1 4. I bought this knife for a 
dollar. 5. The fox was caught by the hound. 6. Every day brings new 
duties. 7. The merchant has written a dispatch. 8. 1 have sent the mes- 
senger. 9. He has loaded his ship with iron. 10. Little minds are tamed 
and subdued by misfortune, but great minds rise above it. 11. The re- 
wards were given to the best scholars. 12. These rocks have lain in their 
present position many years, and they may lie there many years longer. 
13. The beautiful fleet soon carried him out of danger. 14. Young per- 
sons should select their companions with great care. 15. We should have 
arranged these matters before this time. 16. The work should have been 
finished by the contractor before December. 



CXLH.-PASSIVE VERBS, COMPOUND, ETC. 

521. Intransitive verbs have no passive voice, for the action 
expressed by such verbs being confined entirely to the subject, 
no object is acted upon. 

522. Certain verbs in the active voice are sometimes used in a passive 
sense. But, used in this way, they denote the capacity to receive an act 
in a certain way, rather than the actual reception of it ; as, This field 
plows well. Sycamore splits badly. These goods sell readily. Potatoes 
are selling high. This cloth wears well. 



174 PASSIVE VOICE. 

523. A few intransitive verbs take the passive form though used in 
an active sense. These are not passive verbs ; as, He is gone [has gone]. 
The melancholy days are come [have come]. Babylon is fallen [has 
fallen]. But " Babylon is destroyed " is not the same as " Babylon has 
destroyed." The verb fall is not transitive ; therefore, is fallen (not being 
formed from a transitive verb) is not passive. The verb destroy is tran- 
sitive ; therefore, is destroyed (being formed from a transitive verb) is pas- 
sive, representing its subject as receiving the act. 

524. A few intransitive verbs, taking the passive form, and combin- 
ing in sense with a following preposition, are called compound passive 
verbs ; as, You will be laughed at [ridiculed]. He was smiled on by 
Fortune [favored]. His arrival was anxiously looked for [expected]. He 
was unjustly dealt with [treated]. An honest man is well thought of 
[favorably considered]. The words in italics in each sentence form one 
verb. 

Sentences for Parsing. 

1. The bell rings merrily. 3. Our troops captured the enemy. 

2. He is a wealthy man. 4. The enemy was captured by our troops. 

525. Parsing Models. — Rings is an irregular, intransitive verb, in the 
present tense, and agrees with its subject bell in the third person, singular 
number. Is is an irregular neuter verb, in the present tense, and agrees 
with its subject he in the third person, singular number. Captured is a 
regular transitive verb, in the active voice, past tense, and agrees with its 
subject troops in the third person, plural number. Was captured is a 
regular transitive verb in the passive voice, past tense, and agrees with its 
subject enemy in the third person, singular number. 

Direction. — Parse the verbs in the preceding lesson according to these 
models. 

Direction. — After learning the omitted parts of lessons 61 and 92, de- 
termine which of the two words in brackets is the correct one, in each of 
the following sentences : 

1. A large number of trees [was or were] planted. 

2. A great variety of plants [grow or grows] in this latitude. 

3. Plenty of oranges [are or is] brought from Florida. 

4. I and not they [are or am] to blame. 

5. Charles, as well as the others, [was or were] present. 

6. The society refused [its or their] assent to this arrangement. 

7. The society expressed [its or their] approbation by cheering. 

8. The lady decided that politics [were or was] uninteresting to her. 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENT. 175 

CXLHI.-THE INDEPENDENT ELEMENT. 

1. Shut that door. 

2. William, shut that door. 

Explanation. — Sentence 1 is imperative, and you, understood, is the 
subject. Sentence 2 is imperative, and also has you for its subject, thus : 
" William [you] shut that door." The noun William is not the subject 
of the sentence, this word being used simply to secure attention. I call to 
a person and say, William, then proceed to tell him what I wish to say. 
In this sentence, you is the subject, shut the verb, and door the object, 
modified by that, leaving William unnecessary to the sentence, or in- 
dependent of it. 

526. Whenever we call to, or address, any one (as in sentence 2, 
above), the name of the person addressed is never the subject* of the 
sentence, but is an independent noun. Such a noun is associated with the 
sentence as a whole, but it performs no grammatical office in it. William 
is therefore an independent element, and is called independent by address. 

Remark. — In Latin, nouns independent by address are in the vocative 
case [Lat. vocare, to call], and some of these nouns have special forms for 
this use. But in English, all independent nouns are considered to be in 
the nominative case ; they are names, and the name form of a noun is its 
nominative case. 

527. Rule. — A noun or a pronoun used independently should 
be in the nominative case. 

Direction. — Mention the subjects, also the independent nouns, in the 
following sentences. Parse each noun : 

1. Thomas, bring that book to me. 

2. Call the servant, Jane. 

3. Move the chair quietly. 

4. Mary, speak to the child more kindly. 

5. James, have you a grammar? 

Questions. — 1. In what kind of sentences is the subject generally un- 
derstood? 2. Is the name of a person addressed ever the subject of a 
sentence? 3. W T hen is a noun independent? 4. W T hat is the case of an 
independent noun ? 5. In what sense does an independent noun belong to 
a sentence % 6. What office does it perforin ? 

* A noun in the first or second person is never the subject of a verb. 



176 INDEPENDENT ELEMENT. 

528. When an address is made in an interrogative sentence, 
the subject is expressed ; as, 

1. William, will you shut that door? 

529. Independent nouns often occur in exclamatory ex- 
pressions; as, 

1. Poor man ! how he suffers ! 

Explanation. — In this sentence man is independent by exclamation, 
and is modified by poor. 

530. Sometimes, on account of repetition for rhetorical 

effect, a noun is left without any grammatical relation in a 

sentence ; as, 

1. The boy, oh, where was he! 

A noun used like boy is in the nominative case, independent by 
pleonasm. Pleonasm means redundancy of words. 

Models for Analysis. 
1. William, will you shut that door? 

531. This is a simple interrogative sentence. The simple subject is 
you, the entire predicate, " will shut the door." The predicate verb will 
shut is completed by the object complement door, which is modified by 
the adjective that. William is independent by address. 

1. Poor thing! how hard she breathes! 

This is a simple exclamatory sentence. The simple subject is she, 
the entire predicate " breathes how hard," The predicate-verb breathes 
is modified by the adverb hard, which is itself modified by the adverb 
how. Thing is independent by exclamation, and is modified by the 
adjective poor. 

532. Punctuation Rule. — A noun independent by address, 
should with its modifiers be set off from the rest of the sen- 
tence by the comma. 

533. Punctuation Rule. — An exclamatory expression should 
be followed by an exclamation point. 

Direction. — Mention the independent nouns in the following sentences, 
analyze the sentences, then use them for a lesson in punctuation : 



INTERJECTIONS. 177 

1. Sir, you can not have it. 

2. Scotland ! there is music in the sound. 

3. "Flag of the seas! on ocean- wave 

Thy stars shall glitter o'er the brave." 

4. "Auspicious hope! in thy sweet garden grow 

Wreaths for each toil, a charm for every woe." 

Explanation. — Hope, in 6, partakes both of the nature of address and 
of exclamation. 



CXLIV.-INTERJECTIONS. 

534. Another kind of independent word is often used in 
exclamatory and other sentences ; as, 

1. 0, may he never more be warm ! 

2. Ah! how dreary was the sound! 

3. Oh ! why did I not heed your counsel 1 
Explanation. — Such words as 0, ah, and oh, are exclamations used to 

express different kinds of emotion. Each of these words is independent 
of the rest of the sentence. These words are called interjections* 

535. Definition. — An interjection is an exclamatory word 
used to express some strong or sudden emotion. 

Interjections in common use. — Ah! aha! alas! adieu! bravo! fie! 
fudge ! ha ! ho ! hail ! all hail ! hist ! hello ! hurrah ! he, he, he ! ha, ha, 
ha ! ! oh ! pshaw ! pop ! bang ! tut ! whew ! whiz ! heigh-ho ! 

536. Punctuation Rule. — An exclamation point usually fol- 
lows an interjection ; as, 

1. Ah ! how dreary was the sound ! 

2. Alas ! no hope for me remains. 

537. When the exclamatory idea extends through the whole sentence, 
a comma follows the interjection, and the exclamation point is placed at 
the end of the sentence ; as, 

1. 0, may he never more be warm ! 

2. 0, look at the sun! 

* The word interjection [Lat. inter-jectus, thrown between] means thrown be- 
tween, and these words are called interjections because they are thrown in among 
words, but do not make any essential part of the sentence ; as, He died, alas ! in early 
youth. An interjection is not the expression of an idea, but of a feeling. 



178 INTERJECTIONS. 

538. Sometimes in an interrogative sentence the exclamation point 
follows the interjection, and sometimes a comma is used instead ; as, 

1. Oh ! why did 1 not heed your counsel 1 

2. 0, where shall rest be found? 

539 When an interjection is joined with an address, the punctuation 
point follows the address ; as, 

1. mother! will you not forgive? 

2. sir, can this be true? 

Direction. — Select the interjections used in sentences in this lesson, and 
give the rules for the punctuation marks used. 

540. Sometimes the exclamatory expression is an elliptical 
sentence; as, 

1. 0, for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! [0, I wish for, etc.] 

2. Ah, how unfortunate ! [he is]. 

541. Words that generally belong to other parts of speech 
are frequently used as interjections ; as, 

1. Hush ! my babe, lie still and slumber. 

2. There ! you have set fire to the oil ! 

Remark. — These interjections may be parsed as other parts of speech 
by supplying ellipses ; as, " You hush, my babe," etc., thus making hush a 
verb. It is better, however, to consider them as interjections. 

Direction. — Select the interjections in the following sentences, mention 
those that are generally other parts of speech, and analyze the sentences : 

1. What ! are you angry ? 2. A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a 
horse ! [I will give a kingdom, etc.]. 3. Back ! ruffians, back ! 4. Strange ! 
I had not heard of him. 5. The doctor came ; but, alas ! he came too late. 
6. Magnificent ! cried all at once. 7. Oh, save me, Hubert, save me ! 8. 
Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll ! 9. Thou, too, sail on, 
Ship of State ! 

Explanation. — Sentence 7 is simple, with a repeated predicate for 
rhetorical effect. Sentence 8 also has a repeated predicate. 

542. The interjection should always be a capital letter. 

543. Many writers make the distinction of using in an address, 
and oh to express emotion ; as, 

1. sir, can this be true? 

2. Oh! where shall rest be found? 



INTERJECTION'S. 179 

Model for Analysis. 
1. Oh ! why did I not heed your counsel ? 

This is a simple interrogative sentence. Simple subject, I. Entire 
predicate, " why did not heed your counsel " % The predicate-verb did heed 
is modified by the adverbs why and not, and is completed by the object 
complement counsel, which is modified by the possessive pronoun your. 
Oh is an interjection, and is independent. 

Direction. — Punctuate the following sentences and give reasons. Punct- 
uate sentence 7 so that Lowell shall be shown to be the genius ; and again, 
so that Parker shall be shown to be the genius : 

1. Please tell me sir how far it is to Baltimore 

2. what a beautiful collection of birds 

3. My dear native hills shall I never see them again 

4. What are there no enjoyments in life none 

5. Galileo said nevertheless it does move 

6. He said that he would soon make the point clear 

7. Richard Green Parker says James Russell Lowell is a great 

genius. 



CXLV.-ADJECTTVES IN DETAIL. 

Note to Teachers. — The following lessons on adjectives and adverbs in 
detail, may be taken in connection with the work directly following. They 
are given for reference rather than to be learned in consecutive order. 

544. Definition. — An adjective is a word used to describe or 
to limit the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. 

Of the 8,000 adjectives in our language, the descriptive far exceed the 
limiting in number. 

545. Definition. — A descriptive adjective qualifies or de- 
scribes the meaning of a noun. 

A descriptive adjective expresses some property or quality possessed 
by the object named by the noun; as, sweet orange; strong man; hard 
apple ; beautiful flower. 

546. Definition. — A limiting adjective is one that limits 
or restricts the application of a noun without describing it. 



180 ADJECTIVES. 

(1) Limiting adjectives point out, or express number or quantity ; as, 
an orange ; the sky ; some people ; this tree ; one book ; two boys ; first 
man; second chapter; much rain. 

(2) Those limiting adjectives that are used in numbering are called 
numeral adjectives ; as, one apple ; two pears ; first row ; second aisle. 

547. Adjective Pronouns. — Some limiting adjectives are 
often used instead of nouns; that is, they are used like pro- 
nouns. When adjectives are so used, they are called adjective 
pronouns; as, 

1. All men seek happiness, but all do not find it. 

2. We ate a few apples, and we gave a few away. 

3. Some people were injured, and some escaped unhurt. 

4. Both ladies were invited, but both did not attend. 

Note. — In sentence 1, all in the first member is a limiting adjective 
modifying men ; in the second member it is an adjective pronoun and is 
the subject of do find. 

548. Definition. — An adjqctive pronoun is a limiting ad- 
jective standing instead of the noun which it modifies. 

549. List Of Adjective Pronouns, — All, any, another, both, each, 
either, enough, few, former, latter, last, little, many, much, neither, none, 
one, other, some, same, several, such, this, that, these, those. 

550. Adjectives used as Nouns. — A descriptive adjective 
denoting some prominent quality is sometimes (by ellipsis) 
used as a noun. An adjective so used is taken in a plural 
sense when it denotes persons, and is generally preceded by 

the; as, 

1. The good alone are great. 

2. The rich and the poor meet together. 

3. The poor suffer most in winter. 

4. They landed at dead of night. 

5. Providence rewards the good and punishes the bad. 

6. The truly wise are never selfish. 

7. The young are too often impatient. 

Explanation. — In 1, good is a descriptive adjective used as a noun, 
third, plural, masculine (or feminine), nominative case, being the subject 
of the verb are. 



INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 181 

551. Proper Adjectives. — Descriptive adjectives derived from 
proper names are called proper adjectives ; as, German emi- 
grants; French people; English ships [129]. 

Questions. — 1. What is an adjective? 2. A descriptive adjective? 3. 
A limiting adjective? 4. A numeral adjective? 5. An adjective pro- 
noun? 6. A proper adjective? 7. Mention three adjectives of each kind. 
8. How should a proper adjective be written ? 9. Mention the adjective 
pronouns given in the preceding list. 10. What kind of adjectives become 
adjective pronouns? 11. How do they become adjective pronouns? 12. 
What descriptive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns ? 13. What form 
of verb must be used with a descriptive adjective used as a noun? 



CXLVI.— INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

552. Most descriptive adjectives change their form to ex- 
press the degree of quality possessed by an object when com- 
pared with other objects having the same quality. 

We speak of a strong man, a sweet orange, a hard apple, a beautiful 
flower. But all men do not possess the same degree of strength, nor all 
oranges the same degree of siveetness, nor do all flowers possess the same 
degree of beauty ; i. e., the same quality may exist in similar objects in 
different degrees. 

The same quality may also exist in different objects in different 
degrees ; as, Honey is sweeter than sugar. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

1. I have a sweet orange. [One object spoken of.] 

2. You have a sweeter orange. [Two objects compared.] 

3. She has the sweetest orange. [Three or more compared.] 

In these sentences three degrees of the quality called sweetness are 
expressed, and three forms of the adjective sweet are used "to indicate 
these degrees. 

The form sweet is called the positive* degree. 

The form sweeter is called the comparative degree. 

The form sweetest is called the superlative degree. 

* Some suppose that the positive form is improperly called a degree. But, when 
we speak of a large apple, we compare one apple with the average size of apples. 



IXFLEC t: a djectiv::- 

553. Comparison. — The change in the form of an a 

3E liffeient degrees of quality or quantity is called oom- 
son [inflection]. 

554 pare an adjective is to mention properly the tlm 

- in their regular order. 

Direction.— Compare the following adjectives and define comparison : 

OOMP ARA B SrPE RLATPTE . 

taller. tallest. 
g at. g :er. est 

- all, smaller. smallest, 

m. war wannest 

short, she: shortest. 

Questions. — 1. How does the comparative degree of tall differ from 
- I he superlative degree formed f 3. What is 
added to s aparative degree f 4. What to for:, 

superlativ: 

555. Definition. — The positive degree is expressed by the 
adjective in its simplest form. 

556. Definition. — The comparative degree is expressed by 
adding er to the positive. 

The compara: 2 refers to two objects only, and shows that one 

of them possesses the quality in a greater w ss gree than the other. 

557. Definition. — The superlative degree is expressed by 
adding est to the positive. 

The superlative degree refers to any number of objects greater than 
and shows that one of them possesses the quality in a greater o: 
■ ?e than any of the oth; - 

Direction. — Fill the blank spaces in the following sentences with the 
proper forms of long, young, cold, large, tal~ ^ing them in the 

order here given. Analyze each sentence : 

1. My right arm is the . 

0. She is the of the thre. sasl - 

December is the month in the year. 

4. My right hand is the . 

The of those two boys is an excellent schoa 

6. I have an orange and you have one, but mine is the . 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



183 



Questions. — 1. How many degrees of comparison are there ? 2. Ilow 
is the positive degree expressed ? 3. How the comparative ? 4. The super- 
lative ? 5. What does the comparative degree show ? 6. The superlative % 
7. How many persons or things are spoken of when the comparative de- 
gree is used % 8. How many when the superlative degree is used ? 



CXLVH.— IRREGULAR COMPARISON, 

558. Some adjectives can not be compared in any regular 
way ; such adjectives are said to be irregularly compared ; as, 



POSI- 
TIVE. 


COMPARA- 
TIVE. 


SUPERLA- 
TIVE. 


good, ) 
well, ) 


better, 


best. 


bad, \ 






ill, I 


worse, 


worst. 


evil, ) 






much, > 
many, J 


more, 


most. 


little, 


less, 


least. 



POSI- 
TIVE. 


COMPARA- 
TIVE. 


SUPERLA- 
TIVE. 


old, 


j older, 


oldest. 


( elder, 


eldest. 


late, 


j later, 
} latter, 


latest. 
last. 


far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


[forth], 


further, 


furthest, 


near, 


nearer, 


j nearest. 
( next. 



559. Older and oldest refer to either persons or things. 

560. Elder and eldest refer to persons of the same family, and are 
considered, by many, preferable to older and oldest, unless they are fol- 
lowed by than ; as, 

1. He is my elder brother. 

2. My brother is older than I am. 

561. Farther, further. — Farther refers to place or distance; fur- 
ther refers to something additional ; as. 

1. The farthest planet from the earth is Neptune. 

2. I have no further use for this book. 

562. Forth is now used only as an adverb ; therefore, further and 
furthest, as adjectives, have no positive. Far and near, and their varia- 
tions, are also used as adverbs. 

563. Last, latest, — Care should be taken in the use of last and 
latest. In speaking of a performance or of a production by a person now 
living, we should use latest ; as, 

1. This book is his latest work [author living]. 

2. This book is his last work [author dead]. 



184 



REGULAR COMPARISON. 



Direction. — Write all the sentences in this lesson on the blackboard, 
omitting the adjectives in the comparative and superlative degrees, and 
require pupils to supply the proper word for each blank space and to give 
the reason for each choice of a word. 



CXLVIII.— REGU&AR COMPARISON. 

564. Most adjectives that are regularly compared are words 
of one syllable ; as, 



POSI- 


COMPARA- 


SUPERLA- 


TIVE. 


TIVE. 


TIVE. 


cold, 


colder, 


coldest. 


sharp, 


sharper, 


sharpest. 


nice,* 


nicer, 


nicest. 


tame,* 


tamer, 


tamest. 



POSI- 
TIVE. 

red* 
sad,* 
wise,* 
fine, 



COMPARA- 
TIVE. 

redder, 
sadder, 
wiser, 
finer, 



SUPERLA- 
TIVE. 

reddest, 
saddest, 
wisest, 
finest. 



565. Adjectives of two syllables may also be compared like 



monosyllables when they end in fe, 



POSITIVE. 

able, 

sincere, 

narrow, 

merry, 

pretty, 

handsome, 



COMPARATIVE. 

abler, 

sincerer, 

narrower, 

merrier, 

prettier, 

handsomer, 



re, w, y, or me; as, 

SUPERLATIVE. 

ablest. 

sincerest. 

narrowest. 

merriest. 

prettiest. 

handsomest. 



566. Other dissyllables may be regularly compared if they 
can be easily pronounced after er and est are added ; as, 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

pleasant, pleasanter, pleasantest. 

common, commoner, commonest. 

567 e Some adjectives can not be compared, because the qualities they 
express are not subject to change ; as true, square, round, straight, trian- 
gular, annual, eternal, absolute, preferable. 

Strictly speaking, these adjectives can not be compared. Good writers, 
however, defend the use of truer, straighter, rounder, etc., because, often 
when we speak of anything as straight or round, we do not have in mind 

* For the rules for spelling the comparative and superlative degrees of these 
adjectives, see any speller. 



COMPARISON BY MORE AND MOST. 185 

perfect straightness or roundness ; and thus we speak of other things as 
str aighter or rounder ; also truer ; as, " A truer friend I never knew." 

Direction. — Tell what adjectives may be compared by er and est, and 
why some adjectives can not be compared. Compare all the adjectives in 
this lesson. 



CXLXX.— COMPARISON BY MORE AND MOST. 

568. Different degrees of quality may also be expressed by 
joining the adverbs more and most to adjectives to express an 
increasing grade of quality, and the adverbs less and least to 
express a decreasing grade — thus making a kind of phrase- 
adjective; as, 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


cheerful, 


more cheerful, 


most cheerful. 


cheerful, 


less cheerful, 


least cheerful. 


amiable, 


more amiable, 


most amiable. 


amiable, 


less amiable, 


least amiable. 



Although more and most, as here used, help to express different de- 
grees of quality, yet the form of the adjective is not changed ; therefore, 
in a strict sense, these adjectives are not compared. 

569. Most adjectives compared in this way are those of more than 
one syllable, and more and most are secondary adverbs, modifying the 
adjectives with which they are used. 

570. A few adjectives of one syllable, such as wise, fit, fair, true, 
may sometimes be compared by more and most ; as, positive, wise ; com- 
parative, more wise ; superlative, most wise. 

571. When two qualities in the same person or thing are compared, 
or when the adjective follows its noun, this method of comparing ad- 
jectives of one syllable is alone used ; as, 

1. He is more nice than wise. 

2. A man more kind I never knew. 

3. A sky more clear was never seen. 

4. A foot more light, a step more true, ne'er trod the earth. 

Direction. — Compare such of the following adjectives as will admit of 
comparison, using both methods with those dissyllables that will admit 
of it: 

13 



186 PROPER USE OF ADJECTIVES. 

Merry, handsome, worthless, virtuous, funny, hourly, contemptible, 
industrious, guilty, square, exact, high, remote, joyful, thick, eternal, 
happy, equal, daily, hourly, noble, successful, polite, useful, empty, full, 
universal, dead, gentle, spiteful, severe, feeble, truthful, profound. 

Parsing Model. 

1. A truer friend I never knew. 

Truer is a descriptive adjective of the comparative degree, and modi- 
fies the noun friend. [The rule may be given or not.] 

Rule. — An adjective may modify a noun or a pronoun. 
CL.— PROPER USE OF ADJECTIVES. 

572. Double Comparison. — Both methods of comparison 
should not be used at the same time. We should not say — 

1. I never heard a more wiser remark. 

2. This was the most unkindest cut of all. 

573. Connected Adjectives. — When an adjective properly compared 
by er or est is connected with one compared by more or most, the smaller 
should be placed first, and the full form of comparison be used with each ; 
or, both should be compared by one word (more or most), which should be 
used with the former adjective only, being understood with the latter ; as, 

1. He chose the wisest and most advantageous course. 

2. He chose the most wise and advantageous course. 

3. Homer's imagination was by far the most wise and copious. 

574. This, that. — Two adjectives, this (plural these) and that (plural 
those), change their form to express number. This and that can be used 
only with singular nouns ; these and those, only with plural nouns. 

Direction. — Use this, that, these, or those properly in the blank spaces 
in the following sentences; analyze and parse these, and the preceding 
sentences : 

1. kind of apples I like. 2. I have not seen him twenty 

years. 3. I dislike sort of berries. 4. memoranda are not cor- 
rect. 5. I will take one of kind of knives. 6. phenomenon, the 

northern lights, is very beautiful. 7. I never liked sort of bonnets. 

Remark. — We may say, "Thirty head of cattle"; "Three yoke of 
oxen " ; but not, " We carted three load of hay." 



POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 187 

CIX— POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 

575. Position Of Adjectives* — An adjective generally stands before 

its noun ; as, 

1. A diligent man will succeed in business. 

578. An adjective modified by an adverb or an adverbial phrase may 
follow its noun ; as, 

1. The man, innocent of the offense, boldly faced his accuser. 

2. "A foot more light, a step more true, 

Ne'er from the heath-flower dashed the dew." 

577. Two or more connected adjectives may follow the noun which 
they modify, and, in poetry, a single adjective ; as, 

1. The poor woman, iveary and sad, groaned pitifully. 

2. "Loose revelry and riot bold" 

578. An adjective denoting a quality as the result of an action ex- 
pressed by the verb follows its noun ; as, 

1. Idleness makes a man poor. 

2. Labor makes a man thrifty. 

579. An adjective follows the pronoun that it modifies ; as, 

1. We found him studious and attentive. 

2. The doctor considers her very sick. 

580. Predicate adjectives follow the nouns to which they relate, ex- 
cept in inverted sentences ; as, 

1. The sky is blue. 

531. Alone, else, enough, when they are adjectives, always follow 
their nouns, and only generally does. 

582. Any adjective should be so placed that there can be no doubt to 
what noun it belongs ; as, 

1. A pair of new shoes [not a new pair]. 

2. A pair of beautiful vases [not a beautiful pair]. 

Direction. — Tell what noun or pronoun is modified by each of the 
italicised adjectives in the following sentences, and give reasons : 

1. John only rowed the boat. 2. I have money enough for my wants. 
3. He alone was calm. 4. Boys only occupy this floor, and only girls the 
lower floor. 5. Nobody else can go with me. 6. I consider the result 
doubtful. 7. They have food enough for three days only. 8. The flags, 
bright and gay, floated in the breeze. 9. Only a tyrant would act thus. 



188 POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Direction. — Analyze the sentences found in this lesson. Also parse the 
adjectives, giving the degree of each. 

Questions. — 1. What is meant by double comparison? 2. How should 
connected adjectives be compared, and how should they be arranged [573] ? 
3. How should we parse adjectives used in the place of nouns? 4. What 
two parts of speech do adjectives modify 1 5. What two adjectives have 
plural forms % 6. How must they be used I 7. When may an adjective 
follow its noun ? 8. What special adjectives always follow their nouns % 
9. What is a general rule for placing adjectives % 



CLII.— USE OF SPECIAL ADJECTIVES. 

583. Phrase- Adjectives. — In the expression "a few men," 
the words a few are taken together as one expression, and 
called a phrase-adjective. A few modifies the noun men. 

Direction. — Mention the phrase-adjectives in the following expressions : 
" A little food " ; "a hundred men " ; "a great many people " ; " many 

a flower " ; " three hundred and sixty-five days " ; " dark-blue cloth." 

These expressions are idiomatic. 

584. There is a difference in the use of few and little with a, and 
without a; as, 

1. " Few men noticed it " = it was almost entirely overlooked. 

2. " A few men noticed it " = some men surely noticed it. 

3. " He had little cause for dissatisfaction " = almost no cause. 

4. " He had a little cause for dissatisfaction " = had some cause. 

585. No 5 none. — No means, not any ; as, " No man cared for me " 
[no, adj.]. "I could go no farther" [no, adv. mod. the adv. farther]. 
No as a noun refers to votes ; as, " The noes have it." None has nearly 
lost its adjective sense, and is now mostly used as a pronoun ; as, " None 
pitied him." Formerly, however, none was used as an adjective ; as, " Sil- 
ver and gold have I none." Here none is an adjective modifying silver 
and gold. None standing for quantity is singular ; as, '* We searched for 
water, but none has been found." None standing for number is plural ; 
as, ''None of my friends have arrived." 

586. Another. — The adjective pronoun another is used only in the 
singular; it forms the possessive case like a noun; as, "Another's grief 
he could not feel." 



POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 189 

587. One, Other.* — The adjective pronouns one and other form the 
plurals ones and others ; as, " The nest was full of little ones " ; " Others 
may take a different view." They form the possessive case in both num- 
bers, but they are not used as adjectives in their plural forms ; as, "I 
hear some one's footsteps " ; " The boys destroyed the little ones' nest " ; 
" He had a tear for others' woes " ; " The other's child was sick." Used in 
this way one's and other's and another's are really nouns in the posses- 
sive case. 

588. Only. — Only is often used as an adverb. Whether an adjective 
or an adverb, it should be placed as near as possible to the word or phrase 
it is intended to modify. When not so placed, a meaning is often given 
to the sentence not intended by the speaker or writer ; as, 

1. He only arrived yesterday [arrived only yesterday]. 

2. We only stopped for refreshments once [stopped only once], 

3. We only staid three days [staid only three days]. 

4. He only copied the rules. 

5. He copied the rules only [or, only the rules]. 

Only (in sentence 4) may modify any of the three words he, copied, or 
rules, according to the meaning given to the sentence by emphasis or 
rhetorical pause in reading it ; as, 

1. He only, copied the rules [no one else — only mod. he]. 

2. He only copied the rules [did nothing else — only mod. copied]. 

3. He copied only the rules [copied nothing else — only mod. rules]. 

This third meaning, however, is better expressed by placing only after 
rules, as in sentence 5, above. 

Worth. — It is worth a dollar [valuable to the extent of a dollar]. To 
reign is worth ambition [worthy of ambition]. Worth, as here used, is an 
adjective. 

589. Other words, — Care should be taken in placing such words 
as merely, nearly, not, not only, etc., so that there can be no doubt as to 
the words they are intended to modify. 

Direction. — Justify the use of the words in italics in the following sen- 
tences, if correctly used ; change their position if incorrectly placed ; ex- 
plain the use acquired by such change ; change any that are correctly 
placed if by such change another correct use may be made : 

* They love each other = They love, each [loves the] other, each being the subject 
of loves understood. 



190 ^ VERBS.— COMPARISON. 

1. He only favors his friends. 2. I only spoke to him. 3. The French 
nearly lost three thousand men. 4. He merely mentioned the fact. 5. 
He was only elected twice. 6. I am not a man of much originality. 7. I 
saw only John and Henry. 8. I only saw John and Henry. 9. California 
not only produces gold in abundance, but quicksilver also. 



CLIII.-ADVERBS.-COMPARISON, ETC. 

590. A few adverbs are compared like adjectives, and these 
follow the same rules as adjectives in regard to terminations, 
number of syllables, etc. 

Direction. — Compare soon, fast, far, long, late, early, often, slowly, 
quickly, graceful. 

591. Position of Adverbs. — Adverbs should be so placed 
that they will most clearly express the meaning intended. 

Direction. — Change the position of the adverb in each of the following 
sentences so that the meaning may be more clearly expressed : 

1. We can not deprive them of merit wholly. 

2. He did not see the reason for the movement clearly. 

3. I understand my position fully. 

4. The manufacture of silk originated in China unquestionably. 

5. Tea chiefly comes from China and Japan. 

6. The prisoner watched the expression on the face of the judge 

anxiously. 

592. An adverb may modify a word, a phrase, or a whole 

sentence ; as, 

1. He ran rapidly toward the river. 

2. He swam almost across the river. 

3. Perhaps he made a mistake. 

Explanation. — In 1, rapidly modifies ran; almost (in 2) modifies the 
phrase across the river; and perhaps (in 3) modifies the whole sentence 
he made a mistake. An adverb modifying a whole sentence is sometimes 
called a modal adverb. 

Direction. — Read the first of the following sentences so that, by em- 
phasis and rhetorical pause, and by changing the position of only, three 
different meanings may be expressed. Do the same with the second sen- 



USE OF SPECIAL ADVERBS. 191 

tence, and tell what word or phrase only modifies according to each read- 
ing. Analyze and parse : 

1. I only answered him. 8. He only was firm. 

2. I only study in school. 4. Jane only sings to-night. 



CLIV.— USE OF SPECIAL ADVERBS. 

593. Double negatives, — Two negative words should not be 
used to express a negation; thus, M He does not know nothing" 

Remark. — The adverbs no, not, never, and the nouns nothing and no- 
body, are the negative words to be used with care ; also scarcely, liar oily, 
and but. " He does not know nothing " = " He knows something " ; i. e., 
two negatives are equal to an affirmative. Say, " He does not know any- 
thing," or " He knows nothing." Especial care should be taken to guard 
against the use of double negatives when one of them forms part of a 
contraction ; as*, " Don't say nothing about it." This should be, " Don't 
[do not] say anything about it," or " Say nothing about it." 

594. Caution. — Do not say: 1. I can not by no means allow it. 2. 
Nobody never helps me. 3. He didn't say nothing to me. 4. I have not 
spoken to no one. 5. I'm not doing nothing at present. 6. There isn't 
hardly a breath of air. 7. We didn't have scarcely a minute to spare. 8. 
He doesn't do nothing but tease me. 9. I haven't but [only] one. 10. I 
can't hardly believe it. 11. We did not find scarcely any chestnuts. 

595. An affirmative is sometimes delicately expressed by 
using two negatives, when one of them is a prefix; as, His 
language, though simple, is not inelegant ; that is, It is elegant. 

596. Rather. — In " I would rather stay at home," rather = 
preferably, and is an adverb modifying would stay [397]. 

1. It happened tiventy years ago. 

2. He staid till a few minutes ago. 

597. Ago. — Some grammarians consider ago, in sentence 1, either 
an adjective in the sense of past, modifying years, or an adverb modifying 
happened, itself being modified by the adverbial objective years [377]. 
The latter is the better rendering of the word. But, it being very diffi- 
cult, if not impossible, to supply the ellipsis, it is perhaps better to treat 
the expression twenty years ago as idiomatic, modifying as a whole the 
verb happened. The phrase till a few minutes ago may be disposed of 



192 USE OF SPECIAL ADVERBS. 

in the same way without attempting to dispose of the separate words. 
The use of language as employed by good writers is of greater importance 
than the disposition of single words in idiomatic expressions. 

598. There as an adverb generally means in that place. It is often 
used, however, merely to introduce a sentence for the sake of euphony ; 
as, " There will be an eclipse of the moon to-night. When there is used 
in this way, the subject always follows its verb, there having little or no 
modifying" force. Used in this way there should be called simply an 
introductory adverb, 

599. Independent Adverbs.— Some adverbs are used independ- 
ently ; as, " W ell, I can not help it " ; " Why, that is not possible " ; " Yes, 
you may go." 

600. Yes and no are called responsive adverbs ; as, 

1. Have you a knife? Yes. 

2. Did you bring the basket? No. 

Here yes and no are independent. Yes or no may be considered to 
stand for a whole sentence. Yes = I have a knife. No = I did not bring 
the basket. Yes, yea, ay, and amen, are called affirmative responsives; 
no and nay, negative responsives. 

601. Definition. — A responsive is a word used to reply to a 
question or a petition. 

602. The. — In the sentence " The more he ate the fatter he grew," 
the intensifies the meaning of the adverb more and the adjective fatter ; 
therefore the, as here used, is an adverb. For the purpose of analysis, the 
sentence should be transposed to read, " He grew the fatter because he ate 
the more," because being the connective. The more may be taken as a 
phrase-adverb instead of disposing of the words separately. 

603. Idiomatic phrases.— Such phrases as on high, of late, of old, 
etc., are idiomatic, and each is used as an adverb [398]. More than is 
sometimes used in an idiomatic sense, and should be so parsed in such 
sentences as, He is more than willing to help you. Here more than is an 
idiomatic phrase, adverbial, and modifies the adjective willing, 

604. Enough. — In the sentence " This is good enough for me," 
enough is an adverb modifying the adjective good. The expression good 
enough = sufficiently good. In the sentence " Have we bread enough ? " 
enough is an adjective modifying bread. In the sentence " I have enough," 
enough is an adjective pronoun, and is the object of have. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 193 

605. Caution. — An adverb should not be used in place of an attribute 
complement. We should not say — 

1. The stars look brilliantly to-night. 

2. This velvet feels smoothly. 

Questions. — 1. What are yes and no called ? 2. What is a responsive ? 
3. Which are the affirmative responsives ? 4. The negative ? 5. What is 
amen a reply to ? 6. Why are brilliantly and smoothly incorrectly used 
in the above sentences ? 



CEV.— CLASSES OF ADVERBS.— FORMATION. 

606. Adverbs may be separated into six general classes : 

(1) Time — answering the questions when? how long? how often? 
as, now, then, never, lately, sometimes. 

(2) Place — answering the questions where? whither? whence? as, 
here, there, everywhere, forward. 

(3) Manner — answering the questions how? in what way? as, fast, 
slowly, faithfully, together. 

(4) Degree — answering the questions how much? to what extent? 
as, fully, mostly, scarcely, enough. 

(5) Interrogative Adverbs — used in asking questions; as, how, 
where, whither, whence, when, why. 

(6) Conjunctive Adverbs — used to introduce clauses, and to connect 
them, like conjunctions, to preceding clauses; as, how, where, whither, 
whence, when, why, as, before, after, till, until, however, wherever, when- 
ever, while [661]. 

Other classifications of adverbs are often made, but the class to which 
an adverb belongs is of very little importance. 

Formations of Adverbs. 

607. Adverbs in ly.— Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to 
adjectives; as, closely from close; truthfully from truth; tastefully from 
tasteful ; diligently from diligent ; carefully from careful. 

608. Adjectives in ly. — Many adjectives also end in ly, generally 
formed from nouns, and these should not be mistaken for adverbs ; as, a 
motley crowd ; costly dress ; daily toil ; queenly airs ; manly act ; womanly 



191 VARYING PARTS OF SPEECH. 

trait ; quarterly dues ; brotherly love ; burly man ; surly boy ; wily foe ; 
easterly wind: stately carriage; friendly advice; lively debate; princely 
fortune ; cowardly act ; holy life ; lovely disposition ; homely features. 

Questions.— 1. What is an adverb of time? 2. Of place? 3. Manner? 
4. Degree ? 5. An interrogative adverb ? 6. From what are most adverbs 
formed? 7. How are adjectives ending in ly formed? 



CLVI.-VARYING PARTS OF SPEECH. 

609. Nouns Used as Adjectives.— Some nouns, especially those 
denoting the metals and other materials, are often used as adjectives ; as, 

1. The builder erected a stone cottage. 

2. The farmer gathered his wheat harvest. 

610. Adjectives used as Nouns.— A noun that would naturally 
follow an adjective is frequently omitted to avoid repetition [550]. In 
such cases, the adjective assumes the place and office of the omitted noun, 
and is called an adjective used as a noun ; as, 

1. The French speak the French language [French people], 

2. The English speak the English language [English people]. 

3. Many people like mountain scenery, and many like the sea-shore 
[adj. pron. used as a noun]. 

4. The rich and the poor, the weak and the strong, have one com- 
mon Father [rich people]. 

611. Same Word as Adjective or Adverb.— Some words are ad- 
jectives in some constructions and adverbs in others; as, hard, ill* far, 
fast, much, less, little, so, all, early, only, the, well [89]. 

Direction. — Determine the part of speech of the words just given, as 
found in the following sentences : 

1. The farmer works hard. 2. The farmer plows the hard soil. 3. 
He has a fast horse. 4. We walked very fast. 5. How far did you walk 1 
6. He went to a far country. 7. I only answered him. 8. I answered 
him only. 9. You should work more and play less. 10. More work and 
less play will produce better results. 11. All men desire happiness. 12. 
All f bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 13. The longer we live, the 
wiser we grow. 

* Illy is sometimes improperly used for ill when it is an adverb. 
+ All = entirely, an adverb modifying the adjective bloodless. 



VARYING PARTS OF SPEECH. 195 

612. But. — A conjunction. " We looked, but we could not find it." 
An adjective or an adverb [meaning only], " I am but a man " ; "I have but 
one orange." A preposition [meaning except], "All but him had fled." 

613. Like. — An adjective, "My book is like yours." An adverb, 
" The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold " [380]. A verb, " All 
people like fair play." A noun, "Like begets like.'''' Like, however, 
should not be used as a conjunction. Do not say, u She walks like you 
do" [427]. 

614. Same Word as Verb and Noun: 

1. Tall trees shade the lawn. 

2. This shade protects us from the sun. 

3. Artists paint pictures. 

4. Paint preserves wood. 

5. Man the life-boat with trusty men. 

615. Nouns Used as Adverbs.— A noun used as an adverb is called 
an adverbial objective [377]. The ellipsis may be supplied, however, thus 
forming an adverbial phrase ; as, 

1. We came home Friday [to our home on Friday]. 

2. I don't care a fig [to the extent of a fig]. 

616. Adverbs used as Nouns: 

1. Every why hath a ivherefore. 

2. Thou hast kept the good wine until now [this time]. 

617. So, as Adverb and Adjective.— In " I did not expect you so 

soon," so is an adverb. In " He is not wealthy, yet he may become so," 
so = wealthy, and is an adjective. 

618. Yet, as Adverb and Conjunction.— In "Does my father yet 

live % " yet is an adverb. In, " He is not wealthy, yet he may become so," 
yet is a conjunction. 

619. Hence, thence, and whence.— Hence = from this place ; 

therefore from should not be used before this word. For the same reason 
from should not precede thence and whence. 

Direction. — Use each of the following words in two sentences so that it 
shall be one part of speech in the first, and another in the second : run, 
walk, play, dream, mountain, gold, iron, burn, cut, paint, enough, fast, 
more, much, each, milk, shovel, cook, only, copper, tin, good, all. 

620. Caution. — An adjective should not be used when an adverb 
derived from it is required. Do not say — 



196 INFINITIVES. 

1. She walks very graceful. 2. He does not read good. 3. The day 
was dreadful hot. 4. He is a real kind man. 5. Do not walk so slow. 
6. James behaves very rude. 7. He is in tolerable good health. 8. We 
were real hungry. 9. I was awful angry. 10. I caught a remarkable 
fine trout. 

CLVH.-INFINITIVES. 

1. William studies for improvement. 

2. William studies to improve. 

3. He has flowers to sell. 

4. I am anxious to return. 

Explanation. — A finite verb is a verb limited [confined] to a subject, 
of which it makes an affirmation, as studies, in sentence 1. The word 
finite means limited or confined within bounds. An infinite verb [an 
infinitive] is one not limited to a subject; i. e.. a verb that has not a 
direct subject, and makes no affirmation. The verb to improve (in 2) is 
an infinite verb because it is not used with a direct subject ; it is used in 
an adverbial sense, like the phrase for improvement (in 1) to tell why about 
the finite verb studies. The word to, used with the root-verb improve, 
becomes a part of the verb, and " to improve" taken as a whole, is called 
an infinite verb or an infinitive. In 3, the infinitive to sell is used like 
an adjective to modify the noun flowers. In 4, the infinitive to return 
is used as an adverb to modify the adjective anxious. In sentence 2, by 
the use of the infinitive to improve, an act is expressed indirectly of the 
person named by the subject of the principal verb studies. 

621. Definition. — An infinitive is a verb that expresses ac- 
tion in a general way, without affirming it of a subject. 

622. Infinitives take the same modifiers and complements 
as finite verbs. 

623. Infinitive phrase. — Any combination of an infinitive 
with its modifiers and complements forms an infinitive 

phrase; as, 

1. They endeavored to act cautiously. 

2. He is anxious to succeed in business. 

3. I have a desire to visit Europe. 

4. He endeavored to be a good boy. 

5. She made an effort to be agreeable. 



INFINITIVE PHRASES. 197 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, the infinitive phrase to act cautiously is 
composed of the infinitive to act, combined with the adverb cautiously. 
The phrase is adverbial, modifying endeavored. 

In 2, the phrase = the infinitive plus an adverbial phrase. 

In 3, the phrase = the infinitive plus an object complement. 

In 4, the phrase = the infinitive plus an attribute complement [noun]. 

In 5, the phrase = the infinitive plus an attribute complement [adj.]. 

Direction. — Tell whether the phrases in these five sentences are ad- 
jective or adverbial in their use, and give the definition of an infinitive, 
and of an infinitive phrase. 



CLVm.— ANALYSIS OF INFINITIVE PHRASES. 

Direction.— Select the infinitive phrase in each of the following sen- 
tences, determine its office, and tell how each is composed. Analyze and 
parse according to the models given below : 

1. He strove to do his work in the best manner. 

2. They endeavored to act in harmony. 

3. Some people always endeavor to be honest in their dealings. 

4. It is exceedingly hard to please some people. 

5. Our parents always tried to make us happy. 

6. Will you be kind enough to move your chair? 

7. The young man had a great desire to be an artist. 

8. He ought to have known better. 

9. Then he proceeded to explain the point with great clearness. 

10. We went to the river to catch some fish. 

11. No one likes to be forced into an unpleasant position. 

12. The whole party went to the woods to gather berries. 

13. This incident afforded us an opportunity to study human nature. 

14. The old man expressed a strong wish to visit the home of his 

childhood. 

15. We should always endeavor to speak truthfully, and to be care- 

ful of other people's feelings. 

Models for Analysis. 

1. Some people always endeavor to be honest in their dealings. 

624. This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is 
"Some people," and the predicate is "always endeavor to be honest in 



198 SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES. 

their dealings." The simple subject people is modified by the adjective 
some. The predicate-verb endeavor is modified by the adverb always, 
and also by the complex infinitive phrase to be honest in their dealings. 
The principal word of this phrase, the infinitive to be, is completed by the 
adjective complement honest, which is modified by the adverbial phrase 
in their dealings, dealings being the principal word, modified by the pos- 
sessive pronoun their. 

625. Parsing Model. — In parsing to do (in 1) say, to do is an infinitive, 
irregular, transitive, and with its phrase modifies the verb strove. 

626. Infinitives are sometimes called verbals. 



CLIX.— SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES. 

Remark. — Only single words have been used, so far, as subjects, or as 
object and attribute complements. In this lesson it will be seen that an 
infinitive or an infinitive phrase is often used in place of a noun. After- 
ward it will be seen that a whole sentence (called a clause) is also used as 
a noun. When a phrase or a clause is used as a noun it is called a sub- 
stantive phrase or a substantive clause. 

627. The term substantive is a name given to a noun or to 
any word, phrase, or clause used in place of a noun. 

628. As a substantive, an infinitive or an infinitive phrase 
may be used — 

(1) As the subject of a finite verb : 

1. To retreat was impossible [to retreat is sub. of was]. 

2. To reheat with safety was impossible [inf. ph., sub. of was]. 

3. To hesitate now is folly. 

4. To teach idle pupils is disagreeable work. 

(2) As the object of a verb or of the preposition about : 

1. He wished to sleep. 

2. A refined mind loves to contemplate the works of Nature. 

3. I know how to draw a map* 

4. He was about to retreat to his defenses. 

* In this sentence, how to draw a map is the object phrase, how modifying to 
draiv a map as a whole ; and yet most authors say that the infinitive to draiv de- 
pends on how. Say, To draw is an infinitive, and with its phrase is the object of the 
verb know. 



SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES. 199 

(3) As an attribute complement : 

1. To be good* is to be happy [goodness is happiness], 

2. His great desire was to be wealthy. 

3. Caesar seems to have been ambitious. 

4. His intention was to sail for Europe. 

(4) As an appositive term : 

1. Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought. 

(5) As an independent term : 

1. To confess the truth, f I was in fault. 

Direction. — Determine the use of each infinitive phrase in the following 
sentences, and tell how each is composed : 

1. His hands refuse to labor. 2. In his haste to be wealthy, he fell 
into temptation. 3. To die for one's country is glorious. 4. To speak 
plainly, I think you are dishonest. 5. To obey is to enjoy. 6. To conceal 
the truth is often highly criminal. 7. I have walked far enough to weary 
me. 8. A good man loves to do good. 9. The wisest course is always to 
speak the truth. 

Questions. — 1. What is a substantive! 2. What is a substantive phrase? 
3. In what different ways have infinitive phrases been used in preceding 
lessons % 4. What uses are made of such phrases in this lesson % 5. What 
is an infinitive ? 6. What is an infinitive phrase % 



CLX.— ANALYSIS AND PARSING.-MODELS. 

Remark. — These models cover only what is new to pupils. The analysis 
should be completed according to previous models. 

1. To look at thee unlocks a warmer clime. 

629. The subject is the infinitive phrase " To look at thee." The 
principal word in this phrase is the infinitive to look modified by the 
adverbial phrase at thee. 

Parsing Model. —To look is an infinitive, regular, intransitive, and 
with its phrase is the subject of the verb unlocks. 

* The adjective good, being used in a subject phrase, does not definitely refer to 
any preceding word ; it is, therefore, called an indefinite adjective complement. 

t This use of the infinitive phrase seems analogous to that of the modal adverb 
in " Certainly, I was in fault, 11 and the phrase seems rather to modify the rest of the 
sentence. It is generally classed, however, as above. 



200 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

2. Some people wished to crown Washington king. 

The predicate is " wished to crown Washington king." The predicate- 
verb wished is completed by the object phrase to crown Washington king. 
The principal word in this phrase is the infinitive to crown, completed by 
the object Washington, which is modified by the appositive noun king* 

Parsing Model. — To crown is an infinitive, regular, transitive, and 
with its phrase is the object of the verb wished. 

3. To be good is to be happy [goodness is happiness']. 

4. To become a good scholar requires hard study. 

This (No. 3) is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is the in- 
finitive phrase " To be good," and the predicate, " is to be happy." The 
principal word in the subject phrase is the infinitive to be, completed by 
the indefinite adjective complement good. The predicate-verb is is com- 
pleted by the attribute complement to be happy. The principal word in 
this phrase is to be, completed by the attribute complement happy. 

Parsing Model. — To be (in to be happy) is an infinitive, irregular, in- 
transitive, and with its phrase is the attribute complement of is. 

Explanation. — The attribute good, in 3, and scholar, in 4, completing 
an infinitive in a subject phrase, do not refer defi7iitely to anything pre- 
ceding; they are used indefinitely. Scholar is called independent, and 
is considered in the nominative case. Some, however, prefer to suppose an 
ellipsis, thus : "For me to be good" ; "For me to become a good scholar." 
This makes scholar an attribute, referring to me as an object. Scholar, 
here, is therefore considered to be an attributive object. 

CLXI.— ELLIPTICAL INFINITIVES. 

630. There is generally an ellipsis of the sign to before all 
but the first of two or more infinitives in the same construc- 
tion ; as, To eat, drink, and sleep seemed to be his only enjoy- 
ment. 

631. There is generally an ellipsis of the sign to before 
infinitives following the verbs bid, dare (meaning venture), feel 

* Some authors prefer to consider this elliptical ; thus, Some people wished to 
crown Washington [to be] king, making king the attribute complement of to be. 
Washington being an object complement, king is considered to be an objective, and, 
thus used, it is called an attributive object, completing, with Washington, the infini- 
tive to crown. 



ELLIPTICAL IXFIXITIVES. 201 

(when transitive), hear, let, make, need, and see (when trans.); 
as, He dare not speak ; Did you hear it thunder ? Let me see 
your new watch. After the passive voice of these verbs, the 
sign to is generally expressed ; as, He was made to obey. 

Note. — The reason for the omission of the sign to before infinitives is 
one of euphony; therefore, to maybe used after these verbs bid, dare, etc., 
when harshness will not thereby be produced ; as, This book needs to be 
revised ; Dare to be true, nothing can need a lie ; He will never dare to 
come. To is occasionally omitted after observe, behold, watch, help, and 
have. 

632. An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase, is sometimes used as 
explanatory of introductory it ; as, 

1. It is my duty to caution you. 
The real subject-thought, however, is expressed by the phrase to caution 
you, and the sentence may be written, To caution you is my duty. But 
euphony requires it* as a subject to round out the sense and improve the 
sound. f In this kind of sentence, and also in — 

1. For you to deceive me is highly criminal, 
there is a transposition of elements which should be adjusted mentally 
before analysis ; as, 

1. It, to caution yon, is my duty [inf. phrase modifies if], 

2. To deceive me is highly criminal for you [for you mod. criminal]. 

633. Sometimes there is an entire ellipsis of the infinitive ; as, I con- 
sider him [to be] honest. This ellipsis is not generally considered in 
analysis, the adjective honest being directly referred to him. 

634. The sign to must not be separated from the remainder of the 
infinitive by an adverb ; as, " To describe accurately this scene would be 
impossible " ; not " To accurately describe this scene." 

Caution. — Avoid the use of and instead of to-, also the superfluous 
use of with in connection with an infinitive ; as, " Come and see me 
often " ; " Try and Gome early " ; " To begin with, we started in the rain." 
Say, " Come to see me " ; " Try to come early " ; " To begin, we started 
in the rain." 

* It as here used is sometimes called the anticipative subject. 

fit or there in *'It is my duty to caution you, 11 and "There is a delightful 
breeze, 11 is an introductory word called an expletive. An expletive is a word used in 
such a way as to give fullness to a sentence, or to render it agreeable to the ear. 

14 



202 ANALYSIS. 

635. In such sentences as " I have walked far enough to become 
weary," and " I regard you too highly to offend you intentionally," the 
infinitive phrases modify, severally, far enough and too highly, taken 
together, rather than either word separately. 

Direction. — Fill out the following incomplete sentences by inserting 
into the blank spaces the following words, using them in the order here 
given : throw, call, hastily, carry, go, pass, tremble, purposely, sit. With 
each of these words use to when correct to do so : 

I. I saw him the ball. 2. He heard his father him. 3. It 

is not wise form an opinion. 4. Help me this basket. 5. They 

would not have us with them. 6. Please the bread. 7. I could 

feel the earth . 8. I regard you too highly offend you. 9. He 

would not let me near him. 

Direction. — Analyze the following sentences, and parse the infinitives 
and any other words that may be thought desirable : 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. To know her is to love her. 

2. It is a difficult task to root out old errors. 

3. I have a work to do, and courage to perform it. 

4. They are not strong enough to conquer. 

5. I am in haste to return to my native land. 

6. It was impossible to please him. 

7. He was heard to make a very unpleasant remark. 

8. To eat and drink seemed to be his only enjoyment. 

9. For him to do such an act is shameful. 
10. To speak plainly, I consider you dishonest. 

II. Hope comes with smiles the hour of pain to cheer. 

12. They are ready to find fault, and hard to please. 

13. This industrious youth is anxious to become an engineer. 

14. He would not let me sit near him. 

15. The way to acquire knowledge is to labor for it. 

16. We could feel the earth tremble beneath our feet. 

17. He determined to live on vegetables only. 

18. The sailors furled the sails so as to be prepared for the storm. 

19. To become a good scholar requires close application and hard 

study. 

20. James Smith, a careful student, at last thought how to begin 

his composition. 



PARTICIPLES. 203 

CLXIX.-PARTICIPLES.* 

636. We have learned [467] that the simple participles are 
used with auxiliaries to form real verbs ; as, William is driving 
too fast, and he has driven in this way for a mile. 

637. Participles are also used without auxiliaries to assume 
an act, state, or position [assume = to take for granted] ; as, 

1. The gentleman rowing is my uncle. 

2. The lady sitting in the bow of the boat is my aunt. 

3. A vessel, laden f with coal, has just entered the harbor. 

4. Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle rise. 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, the participle rowing merely assumes an 
act. By its use we understand (or take for granted) that the person is 
rowing, but this fact is not asserted. The only assertion made is, " This 
gentleman is my uncle." In 2, the participle sitting merely assumes the 
position of the lady — does not assert it. In 3, the participle laden as- 
sumes the condition or state of the vessel, and scaling (in 4) assumes 
an act. A participle assumes an act or state of some person or thing con- 
sidered as an indirect subject; but it does not affirm anything of that 
subject. The participle as a modifying element relates to its subject. 

638. Position of Participles. — Participles usually follow the 
nouns or pronouns to which they relate. In an inverted sen- 
tence, the participle precedes the noun or pronoun, as scaling 
(in 4), which relates to i". 

639. Participles may take the same modifiers and comple- 
ments as the verbs from which they are derived ; as, 

1. A word, once uttered, can never be recalled [part, with ad v. J. 

2. A vessel, laden with coal, has entered the harbor [p. with adv. ph.]. 

3. Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle rise [part, with obj. comp.]. 

4. Being president, he did not choose to vote [part, with att. comp.]. 

5. Being weary, I retired early [part, with att. comp. — adj.]. 

640. Definition. — Any combination of a participle with its 
modifiers and complements is called a participial phrase. 

* Participles and infinitives are, by some authors, called verbals. 
t For the principal parts of irregular verbs not already given, see complete list of 
irregular verbs [764]. 



204 PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

Explanation. — In 1, of the first set of sentences above, rowing modifies 
the noun gentleman by showing which person is referred to. In 2, the 
participial phrase sitting in the bow of the boat modifies the noun lady 
in the same way. In 3, the participial phrase laden with coal modifies 
vessel by showing its condition or state. In 4, the participial phrase 
scaling yonder peak modifies the pronoun I. 

641. Use of Participles. — A participle or a participial 
phrase may modify a noun or a pronoun. 

Direction. — In the following sentences (and also in the preceding) select 
the participial phrases, tell what word each modifies, and whether the 
participle in each is a present or a past participle : 

1. The road, winding through the forest, leads to a beautiful lake. 

2. The window, broken by the explosion, fell with a loud crash. 

3. Forsaken by his friends, he despaired of success. 

4. Placing my gun on my shoulder, I started for the woods. 
Note. — In 2, the participle broken assumes the receiving of an act, 

and is, therefore, passive in meaning. 

642. A present participle is generally active in meaning ; but a past 
participle is always passive in meaning. 

Questions. — 1. Do participles assert an act % 2. What is meant by the 
word assume 1 3. In what respect are participles like verbs % 4. In what 
respect are they unlike verbs % 5. What may a participle or a participial 
phrase modify % 6. What is a participial phrase ? 7. What position does 
a participle generally occupy? When does it not occupy this position? 
8. Is a past participle active, or passive in meaning I 



CLXHI.— PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

643. Participles often modify nouns by being placed directly 
before them to describe some condition, characteristic, or habit. 
Used in this way they lose, either partly or wholly, their verbal 
meaning; as, 

1. The soldier, wounded by a shell, was carried to the rear [part.]. 

2. The wounded soldier was carried to the rear [adj.]. 

3. The little rill, rippling over its pebbly bottom, pursued its course, 

winding its way to a larger stream [participles]. 

4. The little rippling rill pursued its winding way to a larger stream. 






PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 205 

Explanation. — In 1, wounded assumes the receiving of an act, and is a 
participle. But wounded, in 2, loses its verbal meaning and simply de- 
scribes a condition ; it is therefore* called a participial adjective. In 3, 
rippling and winding imply action, and are participles; but (in 4) they 
describe a habit, or a settled condition, and therefore are called participial 
adjectives. 

Direction. — Select the participial adjective, the participle, or the parti- 
cipial phrase, in each of the following sentences, tell what word each 
modifies, then analyze each sentence and parse each participle according 
to the following models : 

1. The commander, riding ahead, encouraged his troops. 

2. I found my old friend seated in his easy chair. 

3. The frightened horse dashed down the street. 

4. Turning our horses, we rode back to the fort. 

5. The wind blew with increasing violence till midnight. 

6. In a thickly settled country, the farms are small. 

7. With wan, fevered face tenderly lifted to the cooling breeze, he 

looked out wistfully upon the ocean's changing wonders. 

8. This gently flowing stream, winding its course between the hills, 

finally empties into a beautiful lake. 

Remark. — It is sometimes difficult for the beginner to distinguish the 
past participle from the past tense ; but if the pupil will remember that 
the past participle is passive in meaning, and that the noun which it 
limits is represented as receiving the action, no difficulty will arise. Be- 
sides, the noun or pronoun that may seem to be the subject of the parti- 
ciple, will be found to have another relation in the sentence, as in 7, where 
face, the object of with, may at first seem to be the subject of lifted. 

644. Model for Analysis. — Sentence 8 is a simple declarative sentence. 
The entire subject is, " This gently flowing stream, winding its course be- 
tween the hills." The predicate is " finally empties into a beautiful lake." 
The simple subject stream is modified by the pronominal adjective this, 
and the participial phrase winding its course between the hills, in which the 
present participle winding is the principal word, completed by the object 
complement course, and modified by the adverbial phrase between the 
hills, etc. 

645. Parsing Model. — Wounded (in the first set above) is the past 
participle of the verb wound, and, with its phrase, it modifies the noun 
soldier ; principal parts — wound, wounded, wounding, wounded. Wounded 
(in 2) is a participial adjective, and modifies the noun soldier. 



206 PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. 



CLXIV.-PARTICIPIAIi NOUNS.— SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES. 



A participle, or a participial phrase, may be used as a 
noun. In this substantive use it may be : 

(1) The subject of a verb; as, 

1. Skating is a healthful recreation. 

2. Reading steadily injures the eyes. 

3. Reading at twilight is bad for the eyes. [Bad, adj., mod. 

subj. phrase.] 

4. Chopping wood is good exercise. 

5. Becoming a good man did not atone for past misdeeds. 

(2) The object complement of a verb; as, 

1. I like bowling. 3. We enjoyed riding in the park, 

2. I dislike rising early. 4. I dread crossing the ocean. 

(3) The attribute complement of a verb ; as, 

1. Earning is having. 

2. Love is the fulfilling of the law [fulfillment]. 

3. This is surprising [wonderful — adj., simply]. 

(4) The object of a preposition; as, 

1. I am fond of reading. 

2. By doing nothing, we learn to do ill. 

3. In praising a man, avoid injuring him. 

4. It is folly to think of assisting them in capturing the fort. 

647. A participial noun used as the name of an occupation 
or a habit, or one preceded by the or other adjective, loses its 
verbal sense and is simply a participle used as a noun. [Par- 
ticipial in form only] ; as, 

1. Smoking is an injurious habit. 

2. Reading is taught in school, yet good reading is rare. 

3. Fishing is an important industry of the State of Maine. 

648. A participle often performs a twofold office ; as, 

1. The venerable orator, rising slowly, addressed the audience. 

2. Reading steadily injures the eyes. 

3. Chopping wood is good exercise. 

4. We enjoy riding in the park. 

5. By laboring industriously we achieve success. 




PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. 207 

Explanation. — In 1, rising partakes of the nature of a verb and of an 
adjective. Asa verb, it is modified by the adverb slowly, and as an ad- 
jective it modifies the noun orator. In 3, chopping partakes of the nature 
of a verb, and of a noun. In its verbal sense, it is completed by the object 
complement wood, and as a noun it is (with the rest of the phrase) the sub- 
ject of the verb is. In 5, laboring is a participial noun. As a participle 
it is modified by the adverb industriously, and as a noun it is the object 
of the preposition by. (Laboring is not, however, in the objective case.) 
In parsing, say, "Laboring is a present participle used as a noun, and is 
the object of the preposition by." ("By laboring industriously" is a 
prepositional phrase.) 

649. Definition. — A participle is a form of the verb that 
merely assumes an act or state, and partakes of the nature of 
a verb and of an adjective or noun. 

Direction. — Define a participle. Select from all the sentences in this 
lesson the participles, or the participial phrasesj tell the use of each; 
mention each of the three general ways in which they are used ; also the 
four uses they have as nouns ; and analyze each sentence. 



CLXV.-PARTICIPLES-SIMPI,E AND COMPOUND. 

650. Definition. — A simple participle is a single word de- 
rived from a verb. 

Remark. — The present and the past participles are the simple 
participles. 

651. The simple participles being, been, and having (used 
as auxiliaries), are combined with those derived from other 
verbs to form the compound participles : 

Simple Participles. 

PRESENT PARTICTPLE. PAST PARTICIPLE. 

Driving. Driven. 

Compound Participles. 
( Being driving, i Being driven, 

( Having been driving. < Having driven, 

[Seldom used.] ( Having been driven, 



208 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND PARTICIPLES. 

652. Definition. — A compound participle is a combina- 
tion of a simple participle with either of the auxiliary participles 
being , having, or having been. 

Direction. — Select the participles in the following sentences, tell whether 
they are present or past, simple or compound ; mention the phrases, then 
analyze and parse : 

1. Having been censured for idleness, he resolved to do better. 

2. Passing the Rubicon, Caesar marched on to Rome. 

3. Having received assistance from my friends, I carried out my plans. 

4. A city, set on a hill, can not be hid. 

5. Having been expecting him for several days, his arrival did not 

surprise us. 

6. By endeavoring to please all, we fail to please any. 

7. The thief, caught in the act of stealing, confessed his crime be- 

fore the judge. 

8. Approaching the coast, they saw it covered with a multitude of 

people. 

9. I found my old friend sitting in his easy chair. 

10. He soon began to be weary of having nothing to do. 

11. Having finished his speech, he descended from the platform. 

653. Comma Rule. — A participial phrase used as an adjec- 
tive should be set off by the comma, unless used in a restrict- 
ive sense ; * as, 

1. The deer, suddenly lifting its head, detected our presence. 

2. The deer standing nearest the lake is looking toward us. 
Explanation. — In sentence 1, the participial phrase is used in a paren- 
thetical sense to refer to deer, but it is not used to distinguish a particular 
deer from any others. In 2, the phrase is used to explain deer by distin- 
guishing it from others ; a phrase used in this way is said to be restrictive. 

Direction. — Justify the punctuation of the preceding sentences, and 
also those in the three preceding lessons. 

Questions. — 1. What is a simple participle? 2. Which two participles 
are simple 1 3. What is a compound participle 1 4. What are the differ- 
ent uses of participles and participial phrases 1 5. What is the rule for 
setting off participial phrases ? 

* Sometimes a participle is set off by the comma ; as, "The flower, fading, lost 
its charm. 11 



USE OF PARTICIPLES. 



209 



CLXVT.-USE AND ARRANGEMENT OF PARTICIPLES. 

654. A participle, or a participial phrase (unless used as a 
noun), should always refer to some noun or pronoun expressed 
in the sentence. 



Faulty Use. 

1. Riding to the edge of the 
cliff, a merry yachting party was 
seen. 

3. While standing on deck, the 
most beautiful landscapes passed in 
succession before our eyes. 



Improved. 

2. Riding to the edge of the 
cliff, we saw a merry yachting 
party. 

4. While standing on deck, we 
beheld a succession of the most 
beautiful landscapes. 



Explanation. — In sentence 1, no noun or pronoun is used to which the 
participle with its phrase can refer ; therefore, the sentence must be recon- 
structed, as in sentence 2, where the participial phrase refers to we. In 3, 
there is no word except the possessive our to which the participial phrase 
can refer ; but we can not properly say that our were riding to the edge 
of the cliff. The sentence must be reconstructed, as in 4. 

655. A participle or a participial phrase should be so placed 
that there can be no doubt as to the noun or pronoun intended 
to be modified. 



Faulty Arrangement. 
1. A gentleman will let his 
house going abroad for the sum- 
mer to a small family containing 
all the improvements. 



Improved. 
1. A gentleman, going abroad 
for the summer, will let his house, 
containing all the improvements, 
to a small family. 



656. By means of participles, we are enabled to express 
more smoothly and forcibly in a single sentence what would 
otherwise require two or more sentences. 

Condensed. 

1. His body was found two days 
after, stretched upon the ground, 
with his faithful horse still stand- 
ing by his side. 

2. Having killed the deer, the 
hunter returned to his tent satis- 
fied. 



Separate Sentences. 

1. His body was found two days 
after. It was stretched upon the 
ground. His faithful horse was 
still standing by his side. 

2. The hunter returned to his 
tent. He had killed the deer. He 
was satisfied. 



210 PARTICIPLES. 

Direction. — Improve the following sentences : 

1. She walked with the lamp across the room still burning. 

2. I saw twenty meteors sitting on my porch the other evening. 

3. Climbing to the top of the hill, the Atlantic Ocean was seen. 

4. Standing on the summit of the mountain, a scene of unparalleled 

beauty met our view. 

Direction. — Condense each of the following sets of statements into a 
single sentence, by using participial phrases : 

1. I had transacted my business. I wished to be at home the next 

day. I left the city by the midnight express. 

2. The husbandman was stripped of his harvest. He was driven from 

his fields. He abandoned himself to idleness. 

3. The warriors gathered the bodies of the slain. They strapped them 

across their pack-horses. They returned to the village. 

4. The general was confronted by a superior force of the enemy. He 

was without ammunition. He was compelled to surrender. 



CLXVII.-PARTICIPLES MODIFIED BY A POSSESSIVE. 

657. A participle in its use as a noun may be modified by a 
possessive noun or pronoun ; as, 

1. Much depends on his* obeying the rules [his obedience]. 

2. His having decided against you is no proof of malice on his part. 

3. His being a faithful student f increases his chances for promotion. 

4. His being called a wit did not make him one. 

Explanation. — In 1, obeying partakes of the nature of a verb and of a 
noun. In its use as a verb it takes the object rules ; in its use as a noun 
it is modified by the possessive pronoun his, 

658. Caution. — Do not mistake an adjective or a noun ending in ing, 
for a present participle ; as, 

* This use of the possessive is practiced by the best writers ; and indeed it is some- 
times preferable to the objective form of the pronoun, as it often prevents ambiguity, 
i. e., the use of doubtful language. In ** I am sure of him being a shrewd politician, 11 
the participle may refer to / or to him. But if I say, " I am sure of his being a shrewd 
politician, 11 it is plain that being does not refer to I. A better expression, however, 
would be, "I am sure that he is a shrewd politician. 11 

t Here the noun student, being used as the attribute complement in a subject 
phrase, does not refer to any preceding noun or pronoun ; it is, therefore, used in- 
definitely, but is considered to be in the nominative case. 






PARTICIPLES. 211 

1. He is an enterprising man. 

2. He is willing to go. [Not from the verb to will.'] 

3. In the country, the evening paper is received on the next morning. 

Promiscuous Sentences for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. " He is but a landscape-painter, 

And a village maiden she." 

2. " Ah, well ! for us all some sweet hope lies 

Deeply buried from human eyes." 

3. "Rock of Ages, cleft for me, 

Let me hide myself in thee." 

4. "Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

5. By teaching others, we improve ourselves. 

6. His being a foreigner prevented his election. 

7. Having been riding all day over a rough road, I gladly accepted 

my friend's hospitality. 

8. Let the conceited simpleton learn the hard lessons of experience. 

9. We traveled thence to Oxford, stopping on the way at Woodstock 

to visit Blenheim Palace. 

10. At daybreak, the combined fleets were distinctly seen from the 
Victory's deck, formed in close line of battle ahead, about twelve miles 
to leeward, and standing to the north. 



CLXVIH.-CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. -COMPLEX SEN- 
TENCE.— ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 

1. The wind blew and the sea roared. 

2. We will start at sunrise. 

3. We will start when the sun rises. 

Explanation. — Sentence 1 is compound, consisting of two co-ordinate 
sentences ; i. e., two members of equal rank, the second being joined to 
the first as something additional. In the simple sentence 2, the phrase 
at sunrise is adverbial, and modifies the verb will start. At sunrise = 
ivhen the sun rises ; therefore, in 3, the whole sentence when the sun rises 
is adverbial in use, denoting when, and modifying the verb will start. 
The adverb when connects the sun rises to the verb will start, and also 
modifies the verb rises, thus performing a twofold office, that of con- 



212 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

nective and also of adverbial modifier. When is therefore called a con- 
junctive adverb. 

The sentence " We will start " is the principal part of the sentence, 
but when the sun rises, being adverbial in use, is a dependent element. 
These two elements, one of which is principal, and the other dependent, 
are called clauses instead of members, as in a compound sentence. 

Sentence 3, being composed of a principal and a dependent (modify- 
ing) clause is called a complex sentence. 

659. Definition. — A complex sentence is one composed 
of a principal clause, and one or more dependent clauses. 

660. Definition. — A conjunctive adverb is one that modi- 
fies the verb in the clause of which it forms a part, and joins 
such clause to some word in the principal clause. 

661. Conjunctive Adverbs. — How, why, where, when, while, whence, 
whither, wherefore, as, before, after, till, until, however, wherever, when- 
ever, since, therefore, because, as soon as, as far as, etc. 

Direction. — Determine which of the following sentences are simple, 
which complex, which compound, and give reasons. Also tell which word 
in the principal clause is modified by the adverbial clause : 

1. He drove the horse before he bought him. 2. I answered him 
when he spoke to me. 3. I will listen to you, but I will not dispute with 
you. 4. The book remains where I left it. 5. Our army went into winter 
quarters, the enemy retreated beyond the river, and the country was again 
quiet. 6. I love him because he is kind to me. 7. When I was a boy, I 
used always to choose the wrong side of the debate. 8. As I drew near 
the camp, I heard a loud shout. 9. The man, thoroughly frightened, fled 
from the house. 10. He has written some things hard to be understood. 
11. While the band played, the soldiers rested. 12. Washington retreated 
from Long Island because his army was outnumbered. 

Note. — Sentence 7 is inverted. The dependent clause, standing first, 
requires a comma after it. 

Comma Rule. — When a subordinate clause introduces a sen- 
tence, it should be set off by the comma. 

Questions. — 1. What is a compound sentence ? 2. What does co-ordi- 
nate mean! 3. What are members? 4. What is a complex sentence? 5. 
What are clauses! 6. What is a conjunctive adverb ? 7. Mention the 
conjunctive adverbs? 8. What kind of element is an adverbial clause? 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES, 



213 



CLXIX.— ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

662. In analyzing a complex sentence, state — 

1. The class. 3. The dependent clause. 

2. The principal clause. 4. The connective. 

5. The analysis of the separate clauses. 

Model for Oral Analysis. 
1. The farmer smoked his pipe of clay while he sat in his easy chair. 

663. This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause is, 
" The farmer smoked his pipe of clay," and the dependent clause, " while 
he sat in his easy chair," the connective being the conjunctive adverb 
while. The simple subject of the principal clause is farmer, modified by 
the. The predicate- verb is smoked, modified by the dependent clause while 
he sat, etc. The object complement pipe is modified by the possessive 
pronoun his and the adjective phrase of clay. The subject he in the 
dependent clause is unmodified. The predicate-verb sat is modified by 
the adverb while and the adverbial phrase in his easy chair. 



Model for Written Analysis. 
2. The farmer smoked his pipe of clay while he sat in his easy chair. 



Class 

Principal clause 

Dependent clause 

Connective 

Simple sub. in prin. clause 
Predicate- verb in prin. cl. 

Object complement 

Simple sub. in dep. clause 
Predicate- verb in dep. cl. 



Complex declarative. 
The farmer smoked his pipe of clay. 
While he sat in his easy chair. 
While, a conjunctive adverb. 
Farmer, modified by the. 
Smoked, mod. by the dep. cl. while he sat, etc. 
Pipe, mod. by his and the adv. phrase of clay. 
He, unmodified. 

Sat, mod. by while and the phrase in his 
easy chair. 



DIAGRAM. 



_L 



lo. 
The farmer smoked his pipe of clay while he sat in his easy chair. 

T T TU~1 T~ "IZ T T I 



214 ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

Model for Oral Analysis. 

1. Our weakened forces feared to move forward while the enemy, 
encamped beyond the river, were closely watching us. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause is, " Our 
weakened forces feared to move forward," and the dependent clause, 
" while the enemy, encamped beyond the river, were closely watching us," 
the connective being the conjunctive adverb while. The simple subject 
in the principal clause is forces, modified by the possessive pronoun our, 
and by the participial adjective weakened. The predicate- verb is feared, 
which is completed by the infinitive object phrase to move forward, in 
which the principal part is the verb to move, modified by the adverb for- 
ward and by the dependent adverbial clause while the enemy, etc. The 
subject enemy, in the dependent clause, is modified by the and by the 
participial phrase encamped beyond the river. The predicate-verb were 
watching is modified by the adverb closely, and completed by the object 
complement us. In the participial phrase, encamped is the principal word, 
modified by the adverbial phrase beyond the river. 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 2. When the morning 
dawned, all doubts and fears were dispelled. 3. We arrived at the landing 
after the steamer had left. 4. She is far from the land where her young 
hero sleeps. 5. When the western sky is red in the evening, we may ex- 
pect pleasant weather. 6. When Nature removes great men, the people 
explore the horizon to find a successor. 7. While the world lasts, fashion 
will continue to lead it by the nose. 8. Speak well of the absent when- 
ever you have the opportunity. 9. America can not be reconciled till the 
troops of Britain are withdrawn. 10. The ostrich is unable to fly because 
it has not wings in proportion to the size of its body. 11. When snow 
accumulates on the ground in winter, it is useful in keeping the earth at a 
moderate degree of cold. 12. When Columbus had finished speaking, the 
sovereigns sunk upon their knees. 

Direction. — After analyzing these sentences, parse each conjunctive 
adverb according to the following model : 

684. Parsing Model. — In sentence 1, where is a conjunctive adverb. 
As a conjunction it connects the dependent clause " where angels fear to 
tread " with the principal clause " Fools rush in." As an adverb it modi- 
fies the verb fear. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 215 

Abbreviation of Complex Sentences. 

665. A complex sentence is often changed to a simple one 
by abridging the adverbial clause into a participial phrase ; as, 

1. When Columbus had accomplished his object, he returned to Spain. 

2. Columbus, having accomplished his object, returned to Spain. 

Direction. — Change the following complex sentences to simple ones : 

1. When we reached the hotel, we dismounted. 

2. When we reached the top of the hill, we saw the beautiful Hudson. 

3. When the war was ended, the army was disbanded. 

4. As we walked along, we came suddenly upon a nest of quails. 

5. I did not attend the meeting because I was ill. 

6. When night came on we gave up the chase. 

7. Since he was a worthless man he could not be respected by his 

subjects. 



CLXX.— RELATIVE PRONOUNS.— COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

1. Large enterprises require men, and the men must be 

wealthy. 

2. Large enterprises require men ivlw are wealthy. 

3. I have sold the house ivhicli stands on yonder hill. 

4. My father planted the tree that shades the lawn. 

Explanation. — In the compound sentence 1, men is repeated unneces- 
sarily. In 2, who takes the place of the three words in italics, thus 
making the sentence shorter, and the language smoother. Who being 
used more especially instead of the noun men is a pronoun, and is the sub- 
ject of the verb are. Who, then, forms a part of the clause who are 
wealthy, and it also joins its clause to the antecedent men in the principal 
clause. In 3, which is the subject of the clause which stands on yonder 
hill, and also joins the clause to the antecedent house. In 4, that is the 
subject of the clause that shades the lawn, and also joins the clause to 
the antecedent tree. 

686. We see, then, that who, which, and that are used in these sen- 
tences as connectives, and also as pronouns; they are, therefore, some- 
times called conjunctive pronouns. They are, however, usually called 
relative pronouns. 



216 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Adjective Clauses. 

667. As has already been learned, a modifying element 
may be a word, a phrase, or a clause : 

1. Large enterprises require wealthy men. 

2. Large enterprises require men of wealth. 

3. Large enterprises require men who are wealthy. 
Explanation. — In 1, wealthy is an adjective modifying men. In 2, the 

phrase of wealth also performs an adjective office. In 3, the clause who 
are wealthy performs the same office as of wealth in 2, or wealthy in 1 ; 
therefore who are wealthy is an adjective clause modifying the, antecedent 
men in the principal clause. Sentence 3 is a complex sentence, being 
composed of a principal and a dependent clause. 

Questions. — 1. Which is the relative pronoun in 2 of the first set of 
sentences ? 2. What is its antecedent ? 3. What is the office of the clause 
who are wealthy % 4. What kind of sentence is 3? 5. Why? 6. What 
kind of sentence is 4? 7. Why? 8. What part of speech is that in 4? 
9. What is its antecedent? 10. What two offices does it perform? 11. 
What kind of element is who are wealthy, in sentence 3 [667] ? 



CLXXL-RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 

668. Definition. — A relative pronoun is a pronoun used to 
relate to an antecedent word and to connect with it a depend- 
ent clause. 

Note. — The clause, of which the relative forms a part, is called a 
relative clause ; it performs an adjective office, modifying the antecedent 
of the relative pronoun. 

669. Position of the Relative Clause. — The relative pro- 
noun, with its clause, should stand as near as possible to its 
antecedent. 

This rule of arrangement often places the relative clause between the 
subject and predicate of the principal clause; as, "He that steals my purse 
steals trash." Sometimes a word or a phrase modifying the antecedent, 
properly separates it from the relative clause ; as, " In a moment my pur- 
suers appeared on the bank above me, which here rose to the height of 
twenty feet." 




RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 217 

Direction. — Improve the following sentences by a re-arrangement of 
clauses, and by other necessary changes : 

1. The figs were in small wooden boxes, which we ate. 

2. He should first count the cost, who intends to build a house. 

3. Some streams are entirely dry in summer, that are roaring torrents 

in winter. 

4. A young man recently cut his foot while bathing with a clam-shell. 

5. A great river was discovered by De Soto, which the Indians named 

Mesa-seba. 

6. I have bought a house, located in a pleasant village, which has a 

bay-window in front. 

7. The couple left for the East on the night train, where they will 

reside. 

8. The farmer went to his neighbor and told him that his* cattle 

were in his fields. 
Questions. — 1. What is a relative pronoun f 2. What is a relative 
clause ! 3. What is the proper position of a relative in a sentence % 4. 
Where is a relative clause generally placed when it modifies the subject of 
a verb % 5. What word does each relative clause modify in the sentences 
just corrected! 6. In which sentence is that not a relative? 

CX-XXII.— REI^lTIVE pronouns.— declension. 

670. The simple 'relative pronouns are ivho, which, 
that, as, and what. 

671. The compound relatives are whoever, whosoever, whichever, 
whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. [Also, whoso by abbreviation.] 

672. Who, which. — Who is used to represent persons only. 
Which is used to represent things, and animals inferior to 
man; as, 

1. Longfellow is the poet who wrote "Evangeline." 

2. He who labors faithfully will be rewarded. 

3. The horse which threw his rider galloped away. 

4. I had a dream, which was not all a dream. 

Remark. — The antecedent of who is sometimes understood; as, [He] 
"who steals my purse steals trash." 

* Any pronoun should be so used that no doubt can arise as to which word is its 

antecedent, 

15 



218 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

673. Who and tvhich have case forms; the other simple 
relatives have none. 

SING. AND PLURAL. SING. AND PLURAL. 

Nom, Who, Norn. Which. 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Whose. 

Obj. Whom, Obj. Which. 

674. That may be used in place of who or tvhich to repre- 
sent persons, animals, or things. 

675. That is preferred to who or which : 

(1) After two antecedents, one requiring who and the other which ; as, 
The lady and her dog that just passed us, walk out together every day. 

(2) After a collective noun denoting unity ; as, The army that was 
defeated suffered great privations. 

(3) After the superlative degree; as, These are the best apples that 
grow on this farm. 

(4) After who, as an interrogative, to avoid repetition ; as, Who that 
knows him will doubt his honesty? 

(5) When it introduces a restrictive clause [680] ; as, People that live 
in glass houses should not throw stones. 

(6) Generally, after all, any, each, every, no, same, or very ; as, This 
is the same lesson that we had yesterday. 

Remark. — That is a relative only when who, whom, or which can be 
substituted for it. When that is not a relative, it is a conjunction, an 
adjective, or an adjective pronoun. 

676. As is a relative pronoun when it follows such, same, 
or many ; as, He selected such apples as pleased him [the 
apples that pleased him]. 

677. What.* — What is used to represent things only, and 
has no antecedent expressed ; as, 

1. I know what troubles you. 

2. He told you what he needed. 

* What may be a limiting adjective ; as, We know what master laid thy keel. 

What may be an interrogative adjective ; as, What books did you buy ? 

What may be an interjection ; as, What ! does he expect to frighten me ? 

What may be an adverb meaning partly ; as, What by force and what by 
stratagem he finally accomplished his purpose ; here what modifies the phrases by 
force and by stratagem. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 219 

Explanation. — In sentence 1, the clause "what troubles you" is the 
object of the verb know. What, generally considered a relative, is really 
an adjective pronoun [what thing], used as a noun, and is the subject of 
the verb troubles. What, in 2, is the object of needed. Many authors, 
however, consider what a double relative equivalent to that [thing] which, 
the antecedent part that being an adjective pronoun, the object of know, 
and which the relative part, the subject of troubles. 

Questions. — 1. Which are the simple relative pronouns'? 2. Which are 
the compound relatives? 3. What names may the relative tvho represent? 
4. What names may the relative which represent? 5. For what names 
may the relative that be used ? 6. Which of the simple relatives have case 
forms? 7. Which are the singular case forms of who% 8. Which, the 
plural ? 9. Mention the plural case forms of which. 10. When is the 
relative that preferred to who or which% 11. Is that always a relative 
pronoun ? 12. When that is a relative, what other relatives may be sub- 
stituted for it ? 13. What kind of pronoun is what generally considered 
to be? 14. What is a better way of considering its use? 15. For how 
many different parts of speech may what be used ? 

Direction. — Insert the correct relative pronoun in the blank spaces, in 
each of the following sentences, and give reasons; mention the relative 
clauses and their antecedents after the relative has been supplied : 

1. We do not respect people do not respect themselves. 

2. In his hand was a torch • lighted up the cave. 

3. The vultures live among the Alps often carry off lambs. 

4. Let those stand take heed lest they fall. 

5. Even the ox, is a very patient animal, can be enraged. 

6. Hannibal was the deadliest enemy Rome ever had. 

7. He is the same man met us on the bridge. 

8. He does all he can to help his father. 

9. Men make the laws should not break them. 

10. A story is told of another fox displayed great sagacity in 

getting out of an equally bad scrape. 



CLXXm.-RELATIYE PRONOUNS.-CASE RELATIONS. 

678. The relative may be, in its clause, the subject ; the 
object complement; the object of an infinitive, participle, or 
preposition ; a possessive modifier. 



220 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

(1) The subject of the clause: 

1. The man who feels truly noble will become so. 

2. I have destroyed the letter that was sent to me. 

3. I have found the book which was lost. 

(2) An object complement: 

1. The man whom we met, is our neighbor [we met whom], 

2. The book which I lost, has been found [I lost which]. 

3. This is the book that I borrowed [I borrowed that (or book)]. 

(3) The object of an infinitive, participle, or preposition: 

1. The man whom I wish to meet may not be present [to meet 

whom]. 

2. The man whom I was fearful of offending was my best 

friend. 

3. He is a boy whom I am proud of [am proud of whom], 

4. He is a man in whom I have little confidence. 

5. The property that I spoke of yesterday was sold this morn- 

ing [I spoke of that]. 

(4) The relative, a possessive modifier: 

1. I venerate the man whose heart is warm. 

2. This is the lady whose husband was injured. 

Direction. — Select the relative in each of the above sentences, tell its case 
and why, and mention the word that is modified by the relative clause. 

Direction. — Fill the blank spaces in the first five of the following sen- 
tences with one of the forms of who, giving the reason for the use of each 
pronoun. Fill the blank spaces in the others with any simple relative, 
being careful to use that where it is preferable : 

1. The lady you saw at our house, lives in Boston. 

2. There goes the man house was burned. 

3. The gentleman you spoke to is my uncle. 

4. It is hard to oppose those you know are in the right. 

5. Washington was the man the colonies needed. 

6. This is the longest lesson we have yet had. 

7. This is the same lesson we had yesterday. 

8. The men and the tools you sent for, have arrived. 

9. I am happy to know that it was his horse and not the general 

fell in battle. 

10. The passengers and baggage - arrived at this point were 

transported across the river. 






ANALYSIS. 



221 



CLXXIV^-ANALYSIS. 

Direction. — Analyze the following sentences (also those in the preced- 
ing lesson) according to the models here given : 



Models for Written Analysis. 

679. !• A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener 
with constant use. 



Class 

Principal clause 

Dependent clause (relative) 
Connective 

Simple sub. in prin. clause 
Predicate-verb in prin. cl. 
Attribute complement . . . 
Simple sub. in dep. clause 
Predicate-verb in dep. cl. . 
Attribute complement 



Complex declarative. 

A sharp tongue is the only edged tool. 

That grows keener with constant use. 

That, a relative pronoun. 

Tongue, modified by a and sharp. 

Is, unmodified. 

Tool, mod. by the, only, edged, and the dep. cl. 

That. 

Grows, mod. by the phrase with constant use. 

Keener, relating to that. 



2. The police found the man whom they were looking for. 



Class 

Principal clause 

Dependent clause 

Connective. 

Simple sub. in prin. clause 
Predicate- verb in prin. cl. 

Object complement 

Simple sub. in dep. clause 
Predicate-verb in dep. cl. . 



Complex declarative. 

The police found the man. 

Whom they were looking for. 

Whom, a relative pronoun. 

Police, modified by the. 

Found, unmodified. 

Man, mod. by the and the dependent clause. 

They, unmodified. 

Were looking, mod. by the phrase for whom. 



DIAGRAM. 

i .2 a^c. 

1. A sharp tongue is the only edged tool 



' 


1 f 


J2_ 

grows 

1 


1 a. c. 
keener 


1 


1 o. 


that 


with constant 

1 


use. 



222 ANALYSIS. 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. Men that are old and wise should be consulted by the young. 

2. The diamond, which, is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 

3. Read thy doom in the flowers, which fade and die. 

4. The detective found the man whom he was looking for. 

5. He was the same person that I saw on the platform. 

6. He recovered, a result * which was not expected. 

7. The criminal fled from the country whose laws he had broken. 



CLXXV.— RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES. 

680. Relative clauses are classed as restrictive and non- 
restrictive; as, 

1. The diamond that I lost was a birthday present. 

2. The diamond, which is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 
Explanation. — In sentence 1, the clause " that I lost " is necessary to 

the sense ; without this clause we should not know what diamond is 
meant. Not any diamond is here meant, but the lost diamond. A rela- 
tive clause used in this way limits or restricts the meaning of the ante- 
cedent, and is called a restrictive clause. In 2, the clause " which is 
pure carbon " adds a thought in an explanatory way in regard to dia- 
monds in- general — not to any particular diamond ; it is, therefore, a 
non-restrictive clause. The relative which as here used is equivalent 
to and it ; thus, " The diamond is a brilliant gem, and it is pure carbon." 

681. Definition. — A restrictive clause is one whose limiting 
sense is necessary to distinguish the antecedent. 

682. Definition. — A non-restrictive clause adds a thought, 
or makes an explanation in a parenthetical sense. 

Note. — The relative in a non-restrictive clause is generally equivalent 
to and he, and they, and it, etc. 

683. Comma Rule. — A non-restrictive clause must be set off 
from the rest of the sentence by the comma. 

684. The relative that should be used only in restrictive 
clauses ; who or which^ in non-restrictive clauses. Many rep- 

* Here result is in apposition with the clause u He recovered. 11 



SYNTHESIS. 223 

ntable writers, however, use who and which in clauses that are 
restrictive. 

Direction. — Determine the two different kinds of clauses in the follow- 
ing sentences, and punctuate them according to the rule just given : 

Sentences for Punctuation and Analysis. 

1. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. 2. The man that fell over- 
board was drowned. 3. Maize which is another name for Indian corn 
grows in America. 4. I gave the umbrella to John who handed it to the 
owner. 5. They ascended to the platform which fell with a crash. 6. 
People that live in glass houses should not throw stones. 7. I had a 
dream which was not all a dream. 8. Columbus who was a Genoese 
discovered America. 9. A fierce spirit of rivalry which is at all times a 
dangerous passion had now taken full possession of him. 

Direction. — Supply the proper pronoun for the blank spaces : 

1. I went down to the river I found greatly swollen. 2. The 

fish we caught furnished an excellent dinner. 3. The fish were 

very small were caught in large numbers. 4. Peace at any price 

these orators seem to advocate means war at any cost. 5. The gentleman 
lives next door has gone to California. 



CLXXVI.— SYNTHESIS. 

685. Direction. — Combine the following statements into a complex 
sentence containing one relative clause, one participial phrase, one apposi- 
tive phrase, arranging the phrases properly : 

Columbus saw at a distance a light. 

This was about two hours before midnight. 

Columbus was standing on the forecastle. 

He pointed the light out to Pedro. 

Pedro was a page of the queen's wardrobe. 
Direction. — Combine these same statements into a complex sentence 
containing an adverbial clause, a relative clause, an appositive phrase. 
Then combine them into a simple sentence containing a compound parti- 
cipial phrase and an appositive phrase. 

Direction. — Combine the following statements into a complex sentence, 
arranging phrases and clauses properly : 



224 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Edward J. Gladdis was drowned at Jamesport. 

Jamesport is on Long Island. 

The accident happened on Monday of last week. 

Gladdis was an assistant book-keeper. 

He was employed by Theodore Starr. 

Mr. Starr is a jeweler. 

His store is on Broadway, New York. 

Gladdis lived with his aunts. 

They lived in East Seventieth Street. 

He was making an effort to save the lives of two young ladies. 

He was successful in saving them. 

They were the daughters of Mrs. Hamilton. 

She lives in this city. 

Direction. — Combine the following into a simple sentence containing a 
compound predicate, an appositive phrase, and a participial phrase : 
Frederick Muller fell overboard. It happened yesterday. 

He lived in this city. The lighter was lying at Pier 

He was mate of a lighter. No. 20. 

The name of the lighter was This pier is on the North River. 
George Henry. Muller was drowned. 



CLXXVII.-RELATIVES UNLIKE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

686. A personal pronoun may stand directly for the name of an 
individual in a simple sentence ; as, " I will go with you." A personal 
pronoun may stand directly for an antecedent, and it may be replaced by 
the antecedent without destroying the sense ; as, 

1. The lady called James and he obeyed her. 

2. The lady called James and James obeyed the lady. 

687. A relative pronoun can not personate, and thus be used in a 
simple sentence ; nor can it be used in the principal clause of a complex 
sentence. A relative does not stand directly for an antecedent ; it only 
represents an antecedent, which the entire relative clause modifies ; as, 

I saw the man who invented the telephone, 
in which ivho invented the telephone, taken as a whole, tells what man. 
A relative pronoun does not show person by its form. 

688. Attributing gender to a relative is of very little importance, but 
it is necessary to consider its person and number by reference to its ante- 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 225 

cedent in order to be able to use the proper form of the verb with the 
relative as a subject. 

689. The form of a verb having a relative for its subject 
depends upon the person and number of the antecedent. 

Direction. — Justify the choice of the relative pronoun, and also of the 
form of the verb in the relative clause, in each of the following sentences : 

1. He that speaks rashly is not wise. 

2. The men that have just passed us are going to California. 

3. I, who have always told you the truth, am not lying now. 

4. The boy who teases his little sister should be punished. 

5. I, that speak to you, am he. 

6. You, who know better, are most in fault. 

7. It is you who do all the talking. 

8. I pity you, who make this man your enemy. 

690. A relative pronoun shows neither gender, person, nor number 
by its form ; yet, because a relative represents an antecedent, it is con- 
sidered to have the same gender, person, and number as its antecedent. 
Hence, for the sake of uniformity, the following general rule is given for 
pronouns : 

691. Rule for Construction. — A pronoun must represent its 
antecedent in gender, person, and number. 

692. Parsing Model. — In 4, who is a relative pronoun, representing its 
antecedent, the noun boy, in the masculine gender, third person, and singu- 
lar number ; it is in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb 
teases. 

Position of the Relative. 

693. The relative that, as an object in a prepositional 
phrase, is always separated from the preposition, the latter 
being placed at the end of the clause. Whom or which may 
accompany the preposition or be separated from it. A relative, 
when used as an object complement of a verb, precedes both 
the subject and the verb [678 (2)]. 

Direction. — Insert prepositional phrases having relatives as objects, in 
the following sentences, placing the preposition and the relative together 
or separately, as the blank spaces may indicate : 



226 INTERROGATIVE AND RESPONSIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. This is the house my friend resides. 

2. There goes the man I spoke a moment ago. 

3. There is no better material I know . 

4. The friend I spoke has just returned from Europe. 

5. He made a statement I was astonished. 

6. This is the worst case I ever heard . 

7. This is a matter I know nothing. 

8. The friend I staid is my cousin. 



CLXXVIII.-INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

694. Besides their use as relatives, who (tvhose, whom), 
which, and what are used in asking questions. When so used 
they are interrogative pronouns, and are declinable the 
same as when they are relatives ; as, 

1. Who went with you ? 

2. Whom do these pagans worship? 

3. Which of these do you prefer? 

4. What have you in your hand? 

Remark. — Which and what, when used with nouns, are interrogative 
adjectives ; as, " Which book did you select ? " [348], 

Note. — In parsing interrogative pronouns, the gender, being indefinite 
and unimportant, need not be mentioned. 

Direction. — Tell what kind of pronoun introduces each of the above 
sentences, what its relation is in the sentence, and parse it according to 
the following models : 

695. Parsing Models. — Who (in 1) is an interrogative pronoun, third, 
singular, nominative, being the subject of the verb went 

Whom (in 2) is an interrogative pronoun, third, singular, objective, 
being the object of the verb do worship. 

Direction. — Insert the correct form of who in the blank space in each 
of the following sentences, tell its part of speech, and give the reason 
for its use : 

1. do you sit with? 4. do you think that I am ? 

2. I know you are. 5. book have I? 

3. I know you love. 6. Do you know 1 fear? 

7. did your father take with him ? 



OFFICE OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 227 

Responsive Pronouns. 

1. He will not -tell who robbed him. 

2. I know who broke the window. 

3. I do not know what was said. 

4. I know who you are. 

. 696. Explanation. — As used in these four sentences, who and what 
are neither relatives nor interrogatives. They are used in response to an 
implied question, and are therefore called responsive pronouns. Who, 
in 1, is a responsive pronoun, and is the subject of the verb robbed ; the 
clause " who robbed him " is the object of the verb will tell. 



CLXXIX.-OFFICE OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE, 

697. A relative clause may be the subject of a verb ; the 
object or attribute complement ; the object of a preposition ; as, 

1. What I want can not be found. 

2. I have what you want. 

3. This medicine is what you need. 

4. Sell it for what you can get. 

Ellipsis of the Relative Pronoun. 

698. There is frequently an ellipsis of a relative pronoun in 
the objective case; as, 

1. There goes the man we met yesterday [whom we met]. 

2. Show me the exercise you have written [that you have written]. 

Direction. — Analyze the following sentences, being careful to notice 
any ellipsis. Parse the relative pronouns in this and in preceding lessons 
according to the models given : 

Sentences for Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The man who was injured has not fully recovered. 2. Moses was 
the meekest man that we read of in the Old Testament. 3. The men and 
things that he has studied have not improved his morals. 4. They who 
seek wisdom will certainly find it. 5. Whoever wishes to excel must study 
diligently. 6. The man whose mind is cultured sees beauty in Nature's 
works. 7. You shall have whatever you ask for. 



228 ABBREVIATED CLAUSES. 

699. Parsing Model. — Whoever, in sentence 5, is a compound relative 
pronoun introducing the subject clause " Whoever wishes to excel " ; it 
is in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb wishes. 

Note. — Some, however, prefer to consider whoever equivalent to he 
who, making he the subject of must study, and who the subject of the 
verb wishes. The method given in the model is, however, less cumber- 
some, and therefore preferable. 



CLXXX.— ABBREVIATED CLAUSES. 

700. A participial phrase introduced by a past participle 
is often an abbreviated clause. The ellipsis, however, should 
not be supplied in analysis and parsing ; as, 

1. The window, which was broken by the explosion, fell with a crash. 

2. The window, broken by the explosion, fell with a crash. 

Explanation. — The passive verb was broken is composed of the past 
participle broken and the auxiliary was. By striking out the subject 
which and the auxiliary was, there remains the past participle broken, 
introducing the phrase, broken by the explosion, which modifies window. 

Direction. — Change each of the following complex sentences to a 
simple sentence by abbreviating the relative clause : 

1. A city that is set on a hill can not be hid. 

2. A task that is well done is twice done. 

3. A gun that is loaded to the muzzle is a dangerous weapon. 
4 A word that has once been spoken can never be recalled. 

5. Principles which are based on Christianity are our best sup- 
port in trials. 

Direction. — Supply the omitted relative in each of the following sen- 
tences and give its relation : 

1. The question you asked I could not answer. 

2. The friends we expected have all arrived. 

3. I did not have the book you sent for. 

4. The vessel we sailed on was stanch and safe. 

5. The harbor we entered was large and beautiful. 

6. Annie lost the book I loaned her. 

7. Few were the privileges we had. 

8. The fish we caught afforded an excellent meal. 



SYNTHESIS. 229 

CLXXXI,— SYNTHESIS. 

701. Direction. — Combine the following statements into two separate 
unconnected sentences, the first to contain a principal clause, a dependent 
object clause, which clause must be the object of a present participle 
formed from the verb in the sixth statement ; the principal clause must 
contain two appositive phrases, and one participial phrase containing a 
past participle derived from the verb in the fourth statement, the phrase 
being introduced by the conjunctive adverb while. The second sentence 
to contain a principal, and a dependent adjective clause explanatory of 
impression in the eighth statement; the principal clause to contain a 
compound predicate. The second sentence must include only the last 
four statements : 

Charles Fur man was an old citizen of De Sola. 

He was a prominent citizen of that place. 

De Sola is in Wisconsin. 

Furman was intoxicated last Tuesday night. 

In this condition he attempted to enter the house of Chas. 
Worth. 

Furman supposed the house was his own. 

Worth was Furman's neighbor. 

Worth acted under an impression. 

This was that Furman was a burglar. 

Therefore he shot Furman. 

He mortally wounded him. 

Direction. — Combine the following statements into a complex sentence. 
Principal clause must contain an appositive phrase, a participial phrase, 
prepositional phrases, three of which are to be elliptical ; the dependent 
relative clause to contain a participial phrase introduced by while. Body 
to be the subject of the principal clause, modified by the relative clause. 

Captain Webb was a famous English swimmer. 

He lost his life. 

He lost it on the 24th inst. 

It was in the afternoon. 

He was attempting to swim through the whirlpool rapids. 

These rapids are in the Niagara River. 

His body was found near Lewiston. 

It was found at ten o'clock this afternoon. 

It was floating in the river. 

Lewiston is four miles from the head of the rapids. 



230 NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

CLXXXH.- ABBREVIATION.— NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

702. In changing an adverbial clause to a participial phrase, 
the subject of the clause is often retained ; as, 

1. When the war was ended, the army was disbanded. 

2. The war being ended, the army was disbanded. 

Explanation. — The noun war, in 1, is the subject of the finite verb was 
ended. In 2, war is set free [absolved] from its relation as subject of a 
finite verb, and is simply associated with the participle without having 
any grammatical relation to it. Being thus associated with the participle, 
war is not really independent, but is used absolutely in the nominative 
case with the participle being ended. The whole phrase " The war being 
ended" is called an absolute phrase, and, being a condensed adverbial 
clause, it retains something of its modifying force as an adverbial. In 
parsing say, war is in the nominative case used absolutely with the par- 
ticiple being ended. 

Direction. — Abbreviate the following sentences so that each may con- 
tain a noun in the nominative case absolute ; mention such noun, and 
the participle with which it is used : 

1. When shame is lost, all virtue is lost. 

2. While the enemy was approaching, we prepared for battle. 

3. When the President had given his consent, the bill became a law. 

4. Because the rain poured in torrents, we were obliged to stay at home. 

5. When their ammunition was exhausted, the troops surrendered. 

703. Pleonasm. — A noun or a pronoun introduced for the 
sake of emphasis, and then left independent of the rest of the 
sentence, is used in the nominative case ; as, 

1. The boy, oh ! where was he % 

2. He that cometh, let him come quickly. 

Note. — Boy and lie thus used are said to be in the nominative case 
independent by pleonasm. By pleonasm is meant the superfluous use of 
words. 

Review Questions. — 1. When is a noun in the nominative case abso- 
lute? 2. When in the nominative case by pleonasm? 3. Why does it 
require more thought to use the pronoun he in its various relations in a 
sentence than to use a noun for which he may stand ? 4. Why does it 
require more care to use the relative who than the relative that ? 5. Can 



CONJUNCTION'S. 231 

a relative pronoun be used in a simple sentence? 6. In how many ways 
may possession be expressed ? 7. How many uses of the nominative case 
can you mention ? 

cr,xxxm.-coNJUNcnoNS. 

704. Conjunctions may be separated into two classes : co- 
ordinate and subordinate. 

705. A co-ordinate conjunction is one that connects 
parts of equal rank ; as, and, or, nor, but, and sometimes for, 
yet. 

706. A co-ordinate conjunction connects the members of a compound 
sentence; two words of the same part of speech; two phrases or two 
clauses having a common dependence ; as, 

1. Heat expands metals but cold contracts them. 

2. The sun and moon give light. 

3. We found him studious and attentive. 

4. The valleys rejoiced in sunshine and in shower, 

5. This is the house where he lived and where he died, 

6. Do as you are told, for much depends on it. 

707. A subordinate conjunction is one that introduces 
a subordinate [dependent] clause and joins it to a principal 
clause ; as, if, because, since, lest, unless, except, though, al- 
though, for, that, than, as, so that, in order that, etc. 

Note. — Generally, when a conjunction introduces a sentence, it does so 
by inversion. And, but, or for, however, often introduces a sentence, 
simply making a tacit reference to what has been said in the preceding 
sentence, in order to render what follows more forcible. Used in this way 
they are considered merely as introductory conjunctions. And yet, taken 
as a whole, is used as one conjunction ; but if, and but that, are used 
in the same way. 

708. Correlatives.* — Certain conjunctions are used in pairs, 
the former suggesting the latter and assisting it to connect the 
same elements. The two taken together are called correlatives. 
They are sometimes called corresponsives. 

* Correlative == having mutual relation. 



232 CONJUNCTIONS. 

The Corresponding Word, a Conjunction. 

Both. — and : With him lay dead both hope and pride. 

Either — or : Either you or I will be benefited. 

Neither — nor: Neither you nor I will be benefited. 

Whether — or : I care not whether it rains or snows. 

If — then : If this be treason, then make the most of it. 

Though — yet: Though it is winter, yet we find it very pleasant. 

The Corresponding Word, an Adverb. 

So — that : It was so dark that I could not see the path. 

As — as: His word is as good as his bond. 

As — so : As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. 

So — as : He is not so tall as I am. 

Not only — but also : Not only the boys, but also the girls, were 
present. 

Caution. — Do not say, " Either he or I am right " ; " Neither James nor 
his brothers have come," although sanctioned by most grammarians. Say, 
rather, " He is right, or I am " ; " James has not come, nor have his 
brothers." 

Note. — Care should be taken to use as — as in making an equal com- 
parison, and so — as in making an unequal comparison. 

Explanation. — In the first example above, both corresponds to and, the 
two uniting to connect hope and pride. In the last example but one, so 
corresponds to as, but so is an adverb, modifying tall, and as connects 
the two clauses. In the example before this, the sentence is inverted ; so 
is an adverb, modifying shall be, and as is a conjunction, connecting the 
clauses. 



CLXXXIV.— THE KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 

709. A dependent, or subordinate clause, used as an 
adverbial element, may be connected with a principal clause 
by a conjunctive adverb or any subordinate conjunction ; as, 

1. I left the book where I found it. 

2. I will go if you will accompany me * [conditionally]. 

3. The result was better than we had expected [sub. clause mod. better], 

* Clauses like "If you will accompany me" are called conditional clauses. 



DEPEND EXT CLAUSES.— CLASSES. 233 

4. He is much taller than you [are tall]. 

5. He is not so tall as 1 am [tall]. 

6. He is as tall as yow [are tall]. 

7. He was so ill that he could not raise his head. 

8. He acted as if he were afraid. 

9. He loved her as though she had been his own daughter. 
10. The more he ate the fatter he grew. 

Explanation. — In 2, the adverbial clause in italics modifies the verb 
will go. The subordinate conjunction if introduces the clause and con- 
nects it with the principal sentence. In 4, the dependent clause modifies 
the adjective taller. In 5, the adverbial clause in italics modifies the 
expression so tall. In 8, there is an ellipsis of a clause between as and 
if supplying which the sentence is, He acted as [he would act] if he 
were afraid. The conjunctive adverb as is the connective of the first and 
second clauses, and if. of the second and third. Sentence 8 = He grew 
the fatter [when] he ate the more. The more, a phrase-adverb, modify- 
ing ate and grew. 

710. A dependent clause used as an adjective element 
may be connected with a principal clause by a relative pronoun, 
the subordinate conjunction that, or by the relative adverbs 
where, when* etc. ; as, 

1. I have found the money which was lost. 

2. This is the house in which my friend resides. 

3. This is the house where my friend resides. 

4. The report, that he was hilled, is not true. 

5. It is true that I was unsuccessful. 

Remark. — In 4, the adjective clause is explanatory of report in the 
sense of an appositive, and is therefore sometimes called an appositive 
clause. In 5, the adjective clause modifies the introductory it 

711. A subordinate clause may be used as a substantive 
element ; that is, it may perform the office of a noun : 

(1) As the subject of a sentence ; as, 

1. How pi a Jits grow has puzzled many a brain. 

2. That plants do grow is learned from observation. 

3. When he will come has not been ascertained. 

* Where, when, whence, or whither is sometimes used to introduce a clause modi- 
fying a noun, as in 3, above. When so used these are called relative adverbs. 
In 3, where ±= in which. 

16 



234 DEPENDENT CLAUSES.— CLASSES. 

(2) As an object complement; as, 

1. We have learned that the earth is round, 

2. We learn by observation that plants do grow. 

3. He knows where the melons grow. 

(3) As an attribute complement; as, 

1. The fact is, that plants do grow. 

2. His order was, that he should flank the enemy. 

(4) As the object of a preposition ; as, 

1. That depends upon how long you can stay. 

2. Give careful attention to what you read. 

712. A complex sentence may contain an abridged depend- 
ent clause, in which the predicate-verb is an infinitive, with its 
subject in the objective case; as, 

1. I know him to be an honest man [that he is an honest man]. 

2. I desire it to be done neatly [that it shall be done neatly]. 

3. We believed it to be him. 

4. He made a sign for me to leave you. 

Explanation. — Most authors treat these sentences as simple, and say 
that him is the direct object of know, and that the phrase to be an honest 
man relates to him as the indirect subject of the infinitive. But the entire 
object of know is, him to be an honest man, which (as is indicated in the 
brackets) is equivalent to a clause. It is better, therefore, to consider him 
to b t e an honest man an object clause, him being its subject, to be the 
predicate- verb, and man an attribute in the objective case. See rule [501], 
In either way of treating these sentences, the attribute is in the objective 
case. This is more clearly seen in sentence 3, where the attribute takes 
the form him instead of he. 

Direction. — In the following sentences distinguish the subordinate 
clauses, and mention the relation that each bears to the sentence in which 
it is used : 

1. Forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors. 

2. Whoso keepeth the law is a wise son. 

3. Have you heard why my brother went to England? 

4. Life is what we make it. 

5. We know that Whitney invented the cotton-gin. 

6. Persevere in whatever you undertake. 

7. I am glad to learn that you are doing well. 

8. That the earth is a sphere has been proved. 



COMPLEX SEXTEKCES.—ANALYSIS. 235 

9. " On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow." 

10. " Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 

O'er the grave where our hero was buried. " 

11. He wondered, as he looked around, how long he had slept. 

12. We attend to what we hear more closely than to what we read 

[than we attend to what, etc.]. 

Questions. — 1. What is a co-ordinate conjunction? 2. Subordinate con- 
junction? 3. What are correlatives^ 4. When should so — as be used? 
5. When as — as? 6. Mention the three kinds of subordinate, or depend- 
ent clauses. 7. In how many relations may a substantive clause be used ? 



CLXXXV.— ANALYSIS OF COMPUGX SENTENCES. 

Direction. — Analyze the sentences in the preceding lesson according 
to the following models : 

Models for Analysis. 

713. 1. That plants do grow, is learned from observation. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The dependent clause being 
substantive, the principal clause is the entire sentence. The subject of 
the principal clause is the substantive clause, That plants do grow, intro- 
duced by the conjunction that. The predicate is learned is modified by 
the adverbial phrase from observation. In the dependent clause, the sim- 
ple subject is plants, and the predicate- verb, do grow. 

2. We have learned that the earth is round. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The dependent clause being 
substantive, the principal clause is the entire sentence. The simple sub- 
ject of the principal clause is we, and the predicate-verb is have learned, 
completed by the substantive object clause that the earth is round, intro- 
duced by the conjunction that. The simple subject earth, in the dependent 
clause, is modified by the limiting adjective the, and also by the predicate 
adjective round. The predicate verb is is completed by the adjective 
round. 

3. That depends on who can run the fastest. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The dependent clause being 
substantive, the principal clause is the entire sentence. The simple subject 
of the principal clause is the adjective pronoun that, and the predicate- 
verb is depends, modified by the prepositional adverbial phrase on who 



236 COMPLEX SENTENCES.— CLASSIFICATION. 

can run the fastest. The phrase on who can run the fastest contains the 
dependent clause who can run the fastest as the object of the preposition 
on. The simple subject in the dependent clause is who, the predicate-verb, 
can run, modified by the phrase-adverb, the fastest 



CLXXXVI.— COMPLEX SENTENCES.-CLASSIFICATTON.* 

Direction. — Separate into their elements the following sentences accord- 
ing to the several classifications : 

714. Complex sentences may be separated into classes con- 
taining : 

(1) One principal and one dependent clause ; as, 

1. No man is so wise that he can not learn more. 

2. Flowers are like familiar friends that we love to meet. 

3. As we roam about the fields and woods, it is pleasant to see 

here and there a flower. 

4. How much we should miss flowers if they did not come 

every -year! 

5. A little girl, finding a wild violet, exclaimed, " How glad I 

am to see you again ! " 

6. The bluebird, which seems to be the harbinger of spring, 

has come to us from the south. 

(2) Principal clause simple, dependent clause complex ; as, 

1. One writer tells us that it was the grand morality of his 

nature which brought him success. 

2. I was grieved when I heard how he had obtained the char- 

acter that he bore. 

3. As n% heart was entirely subdued by the captivating strains, 

[that] I had heard, I fell at his feet. 

(3) Principal clause complex, dependent clause simple ; as, 

1. Where is the child that would forget the most tender of 

parents, though to remember be but to lament ? 

2. When I was in Grand Cairo, I picked up several manu- 

scripts, which I have still by me. 

3. When we passed the corners of the streets, we were always 

saluted by some beggars who were congregated there. 



* This classification of complex sentences is not intended to be exhaustive. 






COMPLEX SENTENCES.— CLASSIFICATION. 237 

(4) A principal clause, and dependent clauses occurring in succession, 
each modifying some part of the preceding clause ; as, 

1. Columbus was the first European who set foot upon the soil 

of the new world which he had discovered. 

2. The crocodile is so difficult to kill that people are apt to 

imagine that the scales have resisted their bullets. 

3. We must be as courteous to a man as we are to pictures 

which we are willing to give the advantage of a good 
light. 

4. " Happy are they who thus can choose 

Such blameless themes, that oft amuse 
And oft improve." 

(5) A principal clause, in which the subject and some word in the 
predicate are each modified by an adjective clause ; as, 

1, He that can not forgive others, breaks the bridge over which 

he himself must pass. 

2. People who make puns are like wanton boys that put coppers 

on the railroad tracks. 

(6) A principal clause, and a compound dependent clause; as, 

1. He was admitted into this institution by a gentleman who 

had been his father's oldest friend, and who had long 
watched over his interests. 

2. I know that the eye of the public is upon me, and that I 

shall be responsible for every act. 



CLXXXVII.-COMPOUND SENTENCES.— CLASSIFICATION. 

Direction. — Separate into their elements the following sentences ac- 
cording to the several classifications : 

715 A compound sentence may have one or more of its members 
complex ; as, 

1. He was a great and good man, and he left behind him an influence 

that told on the actions of men. 

2. He that observeth the winds shall not sow, and he that regardeth 

the clouds shall not reap. 

3. Mirth is the flash of lightning that breaks through the clouds, but 

cheerfulness is the daylight that fills the mind with a per- 
petual serenity. 



238 COMPOUND SENTENCES.— CLASSIFICATION. 

716. A compound sentence may have one or more of its members 
compound; as, 

1. The hours passed heavily along, but they passed ; and I was watch- 

ing the last rays of my last sun when I perceived a cloud rise 
suddenly in the direction of Rome. 

2. The seasons come and the seasons go, but the sun shines on with 

unchangeable warmth and splendor. 

3. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for 

you ; but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that. 
The following sentence is compound if we supply a subject for stored 
in the third line ; otherwise it is complex : 

1. " In harvest, when the glad Earth smiled with grain, 
Each carried to his home one half the sheaves, 
And stored them with much labor in his barn." 

717. Some compound sentences maybe changed to complex 
sentences; as, 

1. Govern your passions, or they will govern you [compound]. 

2. If you do not govern your passions, they will govern you [complex]. 

Direction. — Change the following compound sentences to complex 
sentences : 

1. Drive your work, or your work will drive you. 

2. We grow older and we grow wiser. 

3. Take care of the pennies, and the dollars will take care of them- 

selves. 

4. Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he 

will not depart from it. 

5. This pianist converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult 

piece of music. 



CLXXXVIII.— ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES. 

718. Sentences are often elliptical for the sake of brevity. 
Clauses of comparison and sentences containing conditional 
clauses are frequently elliptical. In the following, the words 
in brackets show the ellipses in the original sentences. 

Direction. — Determine which of the following sentences contain clauses 
of comparison, and which conditional clauses ; analyze and parse : 



ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES. 239 

1. The best [that] I have is not too good for you. 

2. He is not so tall as his brother [is tall].* 

3. He sailed up the Hudson as far as Troy f [is]. 

4. What can be worse than [it is] to live in slavery?* 

5. One has as good a right to the property as the other [has]. 

6. He is as happy as [he would be] if he were a king. 

7. " Do not look for wrong and evil [for], 

You will find them if you do" [look]. 

8. As a bird [is] that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that 

wandereth from his place. 
Direction. — Supply the ellipses in the following sentences; analyze 
and parse: 

1. He acts as if he owned the whole establishment. 

2. It is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong. 

3. Lives of great men all remind us, 
We can make our lives sublime. 

4. I came to bury Caesar, not to praise him. 

5. She is as handsome as ever. 

6. He is but a landscape painter, 
And a village maiden she. 

7. Stone walls do not a prison make, 
Nor iron bars a cage. 

8. The words I utter, let none think flattery. 

9. There's not a joy the world can give 
Like that it takes away. 

10. As a door turneth upon its hinges, so does a slothful man upon 
his bed. 



FOB ANALYSIS. 

719. Direction. — Before analyzing each sentence, be careful to supply 
any needed ellipsis. But do not supply an ellipsis to expand an appositive 
or participial phrase into a clause : 

1. Many things lawful are not expedient. 

2. Wisdom is better than wealth. 

3. A kind deed often drives away sorrow. 

4. The faster you go, the sooner you will reach home. 

5. Nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, produces insensibility. 

* Clause of comparison. t Or, as far as, a phrase preposition. 



240 SENTENCES— ANAL YSIS. 

6. No man is so fortunate as always to be successful. 

7. He never lends an umbrella, although he has a dozen. 

8. Sin has many tools, but a lie is a handle which fits them all. 

9. We know what we are, but we know not what we may be. 

10. From the lowest depths there is a path to the loftiest height. 

11. The largest and most delicious fruits grow on the most thrifty trees. 

12. She sat on the sea shore as if in a dream, while by her side lay the 

dead body of her boy. 

13. "Nothing," says Quintilian, quoting from Cicero, "dries sooner 

than tears." 

14. Whither thou goest, I will go, and where thou lodgest, 1 will lodge. 

15. I am not solitary while I read and write, though nobody is with me._ 

16. We look for a new heaven and a new earth wherein dwelleth 

righteousness. 

17. Murmur not, man! at the shortness of time, if thou hast more 

than is well employed. 

18. The rosy-fingered morn, mother of dews, opes wide the pearly 

gates of day. 

19. We venture to say, that no poet has ever had to struggle with 

more unfavorable circumstances than Milton. 

20. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by stealth, 

and to have it found out by accident. 

21. We may not be able to accomplish all we desire, but shall we 

therefore sit still with folded hands? 

22. " Let me make the ballads of a nation," says Fletcher, " and I 

care not who makes the laws." 

23. A teacher who is qualified for his office is a blessing to the com- 

munity, but a time-server is a disgrace to the profession. 

24. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as 

cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace. 

25. In this march, we traversed almost the whole circuit of the hills 

around Jerusalem, and I then had the opportunity that I had 
longed for, to see the force with which we were contending. 

26. The Chinese pitcher-plant is quite common in Ceylon, where it is 

called the monkey-cup, because the monkeys sometimes open 
the lid and drink the water when there is no spring of water 
where they can quench their thirst. 

27. Pure, simple, unassuming, kindly, touched with sadness and re- 

lieved with mirth, but never stained with falsehood or treach- 
ery, or any hint of shameful act, his heart was as tender as his 
life was grand. 



; SENTENCES— ANAL YSIS. 241 

28. I have a son, a third, sweet son, whose age I can not tell, 
For they reckon not by years and months where he has gone to 

dwell. 

29. Tis with our judgments as with our watches ; none 
Go just alike, yet each believes his own. 

30. Do not look for wrong and evil, 

You will find them if you do; 

As you measure for your neighbor, 

He will measure back to you. 

31. The farmer sat in his easy chair, 

Smoking his pipe of. clay, 
While his dear old wife, with busy care, 
Was clearing the dinner away. 

32. Spake full well, in language quaint and olden, 

One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, 
When he called the flowers, so blue and golden, 
Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine. 



CXC— BAD CONSTRUCTION IMPROVED. 

720. Direction, — Compare, with the class, the bad construction with 
the improved, giving reasons for the need of reconstruction, then (books 
being closed) dictate one or more of the badly constructed exercises for 
pupils to re- write and improve. These selections have been made from 
original compositions ; teachers will be able to collect many others for use 
as exercises in the correction of language : 

Bad Construction. Improved. 

1. A seal that was carried by 1. A seal that was carried by 
Washington was found which was Washington, and that was probably 
probably shot from his watch-chain shot from his watch-chain, was 
after a lapse of eighty years in a found in a field, after a lapse of 
field. eighty years. 

2. About four o'clock one after- 2. I was spending the summer 
noon the three boys that were stay- on an island with three other boys. 
ing on the island that I did and About four o'clock one afternoon 
myself had boat races between our- we had a number of boat races 
selves in which I was the winner of among ourselves, in two of which 
two of them. I was the winner. 



242 



BAD CONSTRUCTION IMPROVED. 



Bad Construction. 

3. In your letter you remarked 
of having a yery cold passage across 
the ocean. It may be cold enough 
here yet as we have got two good 
winter months yet to get. 

I was too busy to answer your 
letter on Monday so I thought the 
nearest time I had a chance would 
do. Please remember me to your 
parents and I wish them a happy 
New Year and include yourself. 

4. I went about the 12th of 
July to the country. My uncle is 
situated in a town about eighty 
miles from where we live. 

All day long my cousin and I 
were either on the lake fishing or 
shooting and all other sports. 

Very near by there is a very 
large river flows by the village 
where we went sailing every day 
and there was also a beach where we 
went bathing every once and awhile. 

5. We spent four weeks in this 
place and then returned feeling 
much better and a little darker in 
color. 

Swimming was the leading oc- 
cupation of the boys. They went 
in at an average of five times a day. 

One day we decided to make a 
trip to the falls which took about a 
ride of an hour. After returning I 
took a walk to the river with a 
neighboring gentleman. 



Improved. 

3. In your letter you spoke of 
having a very cold passage across 
the ocean. It may yet be cold 
enough here, as we have two full 
winter months before us. 

I was too busy to answer your 
letter on Monday, but I thought the 
first chance I had would do. Please 
remember me to your parents in 
"A happy New Year," including 
yourself in the wish. 

4. About the 12th of July, I 
went to visit my uncle who resides 
in a town about eighty miles dis- 
tant. 

All day long my cousin and I 
were either shooting, or on the lake 
fishing, or enjoying other sports. 

A very large river flows by the 
village, on which we went sailing 
every day ; and besides, there was 
a fine beach from which we went 
in bathing every once in a while. 

5. We spent four weeks in this 
place, and then returned a little 
darker in color, and feeling much 
better. 

The chief sport of the boys was 
swimming, which they indulged in 
on an average of five times a day. 

One day we made a trip to the 
Falls, which made a ride of about 
an hour. After returning, I took 
a walk to the river with a gentle- 
man living near. 



Direction. — Teachers should place on the blackboard, for a general 
exercise, passages selected from compositions for reconstruction. 



PUNCTUA TION.—SEMICOLOK 243 

CXCI.— PUNCTUATION.— SEMICOLON. 

721. Rule 1. — The semicolon is used to separate the mem- 
bers of a compound sentence that are not very closely connected 
in sense ; as, 

1. She presses her child to her heart ; she drowns it in her tears ; her 

fancy catches more than an angel's tongue can describe. 

2. Wisdom is the principal thing ; therefore get wisdom ; and with 

all thy getting get understanding. 

722. Rule 2. — The semicolon is used to separate the mem- 
bers of a compound sentence when either contains elements 
separated by commas, especially when the connective is 
omitted; as, 

1. Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow ; 

He who would search for pearls must search below. 

2. Now abideth faith, hope, charity; but the greatest of these is 

charity. 

3. When the million applaud, you ask what harm you have done; 

when they censure, whaf^ood. 

723. Rule 3. — The semicolon is used to separate the mem- 
bers of a compound sentence when the latter is added for the 
sake of contrast, or as a reason or inference ; as, 

1. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here ; 

but it can never forget what they did here. 

2. His subjects must have despised him ; for he was a bad man. 

3. The ground is wet; therefore it must have rained. 

4. He who tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes ; 

for he must be forced to invent twenty more to maintain 
the one. 

724. Rule 4. — The semicolon is generally used to separate 
a series of clauses or phrases having a common dependence 
upon some other clause or word ; as, 

1. Here let us resolve that they shall not have died in vain ; that this 
nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom; and 
that the government of the people, by the people, and for 
the people, shall not perish from the earth. 



244 PUNCTUA TION— SEMICOLON— COLON. 

2. The light that led them on was composed of rays from the whole 
history of the race ; from the traditions of the Hebrews in the 
gray of the world's morning; from the heroes and sages of 
republican Greece and Rome ; from the example of Him who 
died on the cross for the life of humanity. 

725. Rule 5. — A semicolon is used before as and namely 
when they introduce an example, or an enumeration of par- 
ticulars; as, 

1. Nouns change their form to distinguish gender ; as, count, countess. 

2. Five great enemies are constantly harassing us; namely, avarice, 

ambition, envy, anger, and pride. 

Sentences for Punctuation. 

1. A man's first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own 

heart his next to escape the censures of the world. 

2. I was impatient to see it come upon the table but when it came 

I could scarcely eat a mouthful my tears choked me. 

3. When the righteous are in authority the people rejoice but when 

the wicked beareth rule^he people mourn. 

4. Phillips speaks as well as Sumner but he does not reason so well. 

5. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages viz. 

the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age. 

6. Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her operations that 

she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve that knowledge will 
always be progressive and that all future generations will con- 
tinue to make discoveries. 

7. If we think of glory in the field of' wisdom in the cabinet of the 

purest patriotism of the highest integrity public and private 
of morals without a stain of religious feeling without intoler- 
ance and without extravagance — the august figure of Wash- 
ington presents itself as the personification of all these. 

The Colon. 

726. Rule 1. — The colon is used before a direct quotation ; 
before a sentence added by way of inference when not intro- 
duced by a conjunction ; after the words following, as follows, 
tliis, these, etc. ; as, 



VERBS.— MODES. 245 

1. Holmes says : " Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handle that fits 

them all." 

2. Apply yourself to study; for it will redound to your honor. Apply 

yourself to study : it will redound to your honor. 

3. The committee will meet on the following days : Mondays, Wednes- 

days, and Saturdays. 



CXCII.-VERBS.— MODES. 

727. Definition. — A verb is a word used to assert something 
of its subject. 

728. A verb may be used : 

1. To affirm ; as, William speaks distinctly. 

2. To ask a question; as, Does William speak distinctly? 

3. To express a command ; as, Speak (thou, ye, or you) distinctly. 

4. To express possibility; as, He may have spoken once. 

5. To express necessity ; as, You must speak distinctly. 

6. To express obligation ; as, You should speak distinctly. 

7. To express condition; as, I can hear you if you speak distinctly. 

8. To express supposition ; as, If I speak distinctly, you will not listen. 

729. These different uses of a verb arise from the different kinds of 
thoughts and feelings that we wish to express. 

Modes of the Verb. 

730. We have moods [states of mind] caused by surrounding circum- 
stances, or as the result of observation and thought. When we wish to 
speak or write, our moods require the use of such forms of a verb as will 
properly express our thoughts. Mood [manner of thought] being thus 
shown in the forms of the verb used to express thought, these forms, 
themselves, have come to be considered the moods or modes of the verb. 

731. Definition. — Mode is that form or use of a verb which 
shows the manner of thought of the speaker or writer. 

732. There are four modes, the indicative, the potential, 
the subjunctive, the imperative. 

733. Indicative mode.— The form of a verb used in a sentence to 
affirm or to declare something as an actual occurrence or fact, is said to 
be in the indicative mode, because such a verb indicates or asserts posi- 



246 THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

tively what is in the mind of the speaker or writer with reference to the 
subject ; as, " The mocking bird sings with great sweetness, and readily 
imitates the songs of other birds." 

Questions.— 1. What is a verb? 2. What does the verb express in 
" William speaks distinctly " % 8. Teacher should read the other sentences 
and ask questions. 4. What is mode in grammar? 5. What is the indica- 
tive mode % 6. Why is it so called I 



CXCIH.— THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

734. Definition. — The indicative mode is that form of a 
verb used to assert something as an actual occurrence or fact. 

The indicative mode may be used — 

(1) To make an affirmation ; as, 

1. The stars shine brightly (or do shine — emphatic form). 

2. We saw Venus last evening (or did see — emphatic form). 

3. I have seen Niagara Falls this summer. 

4. I had seen Niagara Falls before. 

5. I will begin this work immediately. 

6. I shall have finished the work by to-morrow noon. 

(2) To ask a question ; as, 

1. Have you seen Niagara Falls? 

2. Will they start to-morrow? 

Tenses of the Indicative Mode. 

735. There are six tenses in the indicative mode : the 
present, the past, and the future, which are the primary 
tenses; also the present perfect, the past perfect, and the 
future perfect, which are the secondary tenses. 

736. Auxiliaries,* — In the active voice, the auxiliaries used in this 
mode are do and its past tense did (helping to make the emphatic forms 
of the present and past tenses) ; have and its past tense had ; also shall 
and will. 

Note. — The verbs formed by using the auxiliaries have, had, and shall 
have or will have, make the perfect tenses of this mode, because such 

* These helping verbs aid in forming the compound tenses. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "SEE." 247 

verbs represent an act or event as perfected or finished at or before some 
particular time indicated in the sentence. 

Direction. — After carefully 'reading this note, point out the verbs in the 
six sentences above, that are in the perfect tenses. Read the definition of 
the present perfect tense found in the next lesson, then point out a verb 
in this tense. Proceed in this way with the other two perfect tenses. 

737. The arrangement in the following lesson shows the tense forms 
of the verb see, in a sample sentence, abbreviated by omitting all the 
words after the verb. This arrangement is called conjugation. 

738. Conjugation. — Conjugation is the orderly arrangement 
of the various verb-forms, showing their use with subjects in 
the different persons and numbers in all the modes and tenses. 



CXCIV.— CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "SEE," 

Principal Parts. 

PRESENT TENSE, PAST TENSE. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. PAST PARTICIPLE. 

See. Saw. Seeing. Seen. 

Indicative Mode. 
Present Tense. 

739. The present tense* is that form of a verb used to represent 
incomplete action in present time ; as, I see the stars. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I see. 1. We see. 

2. You see (thou seestj;). 2. You see. 

3. He, she, or it sees. 3. They see. 

Note. — In its simple form, this tense is the present, or root-form of 
the verb; but in its emphatic form, do is joined to see; as, I do see. See 
is either a singular or a plural form, but is changed to the special singular 
form sees in the third person singular. 

* The present tense is also used to express general truths, and also habits and 
customs ; as, Vice produces misery ; Charles smokes ; Mary dresses neatly ; The sun 
rises every morning and sets every evening. 

t Seest is the form used with thou, the old style personal pronoun of the second 
person. 



248 CONJUGA TION OF THE VERB « SEE?' 

Past Tense. 

740 o The past tense is that form of a verb used to represent an act 
or event as completed -* in time now wholly past ; as, I saw John early 
this morning, yesterday, last week, last month, last year, etc. 

SINGULAR. , PLURAL. 

1. I saw. 1. We saw. 

2. You saw (thou saivest). 2. You saw. 

3. He saw. 3. They saw. 

Note. — This tense in its simple form is the past tense of the verb ; but 
in its emphatic form, did is joined to the present tense see ; as, I did see 
the stars. There is no change in the form of the verb for person and 
number in this tense. 

Direction. — Conjugate these two tenses in the emphatic form. Men- 
tion the only special singular form of the verb found in either of these 
two tenses. Tell which of these tenses has no change of form. Mention 
the forms used with thou as a subject. 

Future Tense. 

741. The future tense is that form of a verb used to represent an act 
or event as yet to take place ; as, I shall see my brother next week, 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall see. 1. We shall see. 

2. You will f see (thou wilt see). 2. You will see. 

3. He will see. 3. They will see. 
Or, 

1. I will see. 1. We will see. 

2. You shall see (thou shalt see). 2. You shall see. 

3. He shall see. 3. They shall see. 

Note. — This compound tense is formed by joining the auxiliary shall 
or will to the root-form of the verb. 

* The progressive form of the verb in this tense represents the act or event as 
continuing in time wholly past. 

t Shall and Will. — Shall used with a subject in the first person denotes inten- 
tion. Will used, with a subject in the second or third person also denotes intention. 
In order to carry the idea of intention through all three of the persons, the change in 
the auxiliar3 r is made from shall in the first person to will in the second and third. 

Will used with a subject in the first person denotes determination. Shall used 
with a subject in the second and third persons also denotes determination ; therefore 
a similar change is made in the second arrangement of the future tense to carry the 
idea of determination through the three persons. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "SEE." 249 

Present Perfect Tense. 

742. The present perfect tense is that form of a verb used to repre- 
sent an act or event as perfected, or completed, yet connected with present 
time ; as, I have seen my brother this evening ; I have written many letters 
this month* this year, or since I returned from Europe. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I have seen. 1. We have seen. 

2. You have seen (thou hast). 2. You have seen. 

3. He has seen. 3. They have seen. 
Note. — This compound tense is formed by joining the auxiliary have 

to the past participle of the verb. Have is changed to the special singu- 
lar form has in the third person singular. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

743. The past perfect tense is that form of a verb used to represent 
an act or event as finished at or before some specified past time; as, 
I had seen the agent before I received your letter. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I had seen. 1. We had seen. 

2. You had seen (thou hadsf). 2. You had seen. 

3. He had seen. 3. They had seen. 

Note. — This compound tense is formed by joining the auxiliary had to 
the past participle of the verb. There is no change in the verb in this 
tense for person and number. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

744. The future perfect tense is that form of a verb used to represent 
that an act or event will be completed at or before some specified future 
time; as, I shall have seen the agent by twelve o'clock to-morrow. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall have seen. 1. We shall have seen. 

2. You will have seen (thou wilt). 2. You will have seen. 

3. He will have seen. 3. They will have seen. 
Note. — This compound tense, which is seldom used, is formed by join- 
ing the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the past participle of the 
verb. The change from shall in the first person to will in the second and 
third is made for the same reason as in the future tense. 

* The phrase this month connects the completed act with a period of time yet 
present. 

17 



250 POTENTIAL MODE. 

Direction. — Conjugate other verbs in this mode, stating how the verb is 
formed in each tense. For synopsis, see [762]. 

Questions.— 1. What is mode? 2. What is the indicative model 3. 
For what may this mode be used besides making an affirmation f 4. How 
many tenses in this mode % 5. Which of the tenses of this mode are gen- 
erally simple in form ? 6. Which are always compound in form % 7. What 
auxiliary is always the sign of the three perfect tenses % 8. What is the 
special name of each of the perfect tenses ? 9. Why is shall changed to 
will in the second and third persons of the future tenses ? 10. When are 
the verb forms, seest, hast, wilt, etc., used ? 



CXCV.-POTENTIAL MODE. 

745. Definition. — The potential mode is that form of a verb 
used to assert something as possible, necessary, or obligatory. 

1. Something Possible. — I may be wrong. He can write rapidly 
(having the power). You may return now (having permission). 

2. Something Necessary.— I must go now. You must write better. 
He must study more. 

3. Something Obligatory. — I should have gone before. You should 
study more. He should be more careful. 

Note. — This mode may also be used in asking questions; as, May I 
go with you ? 

Present Tense. 

746. Auxiliaries, may, can, or must. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may see. 1. We may see. 

2. You may see (thou mayst). 2. You may see. 

3. He may see. 3. They may see. 

Note. — The tenses of the potential mode do not correspond with the 
time of the act or event as exactly as those of the indicative mode. 

Past Tense. 

747. Auxiliaries, might, could, would, or should. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might see. 1. We might see. 

2. You might see (thou mightst). 2. You might see. 

3. He might see. 3. They might see. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 251 

Present Perfect Tense. 

748. Auxiliaries, may have, can have, must have. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I may have seen. 1. We may have seen. 

2. You may have seen. 2. You may have seen. 

3. He may have seen. 3. They may have seen. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

749, Auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, should 
have. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might have seen. 1. We might have seen. 

2. You might have seen. 2. You might have seen. 

3. He might have seen. 3. They might have seen. 

Direction. — Define the potential mode. Give the auxiliaries belonging 
to each tense. Tell how each tense is formed. Conjugate, first with may 
and might, and then with • must and could. Ask a question with a verb 
in this mode. 

Parsing Model. 

1. He has caught a fine trout. 

2. I may go to Albany to-morrow. 

Has caught is an irregular transitive verb, indicative, present perfect, 
and agrees with its subject he in the third, singular. 

May go is an irregular intransitive verb, potential, present, and agrees 
with its subject I in the first, singular. 

Direction. — Parse any of the verbs in the preceding lessons according 
to the model here given. 



CXCVI.— SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

750. The form of a verb used to express a fact is often 
different from that of the same verb used to express a future 
uncertainty, or a supposition contrary to fact ; as, 

1. It rains very fast [fact]. 

2. If it rain to-morrow, I shall not go to Albany [future uncertainty]. 

3. He was here yesterday [fact]. 

4. If he were here, I should be glad [supposition]. 



252 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The forms rain and were, as used in 2 and 4 with singular subjects, 
are said to be in the subjunctive mode because each is used in a subjoined 
clause to express something as uncertain or as a supposition. 

Modern usage, however, almost entirely discards this distinction in 
the use of active verbs, and many grammarians encourage this usage. 
The present usage is to say : 

1. If it rains to-morrow, I shall not go to Albany. 

2. If he works steadily, I will increase his wages. 

3. Unless the physician arrives soon, the patient will die. 

4. If help comes, all will be well. 

And yet, the grammarians who favor this would hardly change the 
verbs in the following sentences to the indicative form : 

1. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

2. If thy brother offend thee, rebuke him ; and if he repent, forgive 

him. 

751. Formerly active verbs used in sentences indicating future un- 
certainty (as in the four sentences above) were invariably in the subjunctive 
form ; i. e., the form without the s ; as, If it rain [shall rain] ; If he work 
[shall work]; Unless the physician arrive [shall arrive], each of these 
subjunctive forms being considered a sort of elliptical future. The use 
of these special forms is still adhered to by some of the best authors. 

752. The use- of the verb be or am in its various forms in conditional 
clauses requires more attention than that of other verbs. 

753. The conjunction if though, lest, unless, or whether, is 
generally used to introduce a conditional clause ; but it is the 
future uncertainty that calls for the subjunctive form in the 
present tense, and the supposition of a state of things, for the 
subjunctive form in the past tense. The verb in a conditional 
clause may be in the indicative, or in the potential mode. 

754. Definition. — The subjunctive mode is that form of a 
verb used in a conditional clause, when it expresses a future 
uncertainty or a supposition with indefinite time, or a supposi- 
tion implying the contrary to be true. 

Questions. — 1. What is the subjunctive mode? 2. When should the 
verb in a conditional clause be in the subjunctive form ? 3. What con- 
junctions generally introduce conditional clauses I 






IMPERATIVE MODE. 253 

Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. 

Present Tense. Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I see. 1. We see. 1. (If) I see. 1. (If) we see. 

2. You see. 2. You see. 2. (If) you see. 2. (If) you see. 

3. He sees. 3. They see. 3. (If) he see. 3. (If) they see. 

Past Tense. Past Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I saw. 1. We saw. 1. (If) I saw. 1. (If) we saw. 

2. You saw. 2. You saw. 2. (If) you saw. 2. (If) you saw. 

3. He saw. 3. They saw. 3. (If) he saw. 3. (If) they saw. 
Note. — As all the forms peculiar to the subjunctive mode are found 

only in the present and past tenses, this mode is considered to have but 
two tenses. By placing, side by side, the conjugation of the active verb 
see, it is plainly shown that there is only one form in the present tense 
subjunctive, different from the forms of the indicative mode ; and also that 
there is no difference whatever in the forms in the past tense. In the 
conjugation of the verb be, however, there are changes in both tenses. 
[See 757]. 

CXCVH.-IMPERATIVE MODE. 

755. Definition. — The imperative mode is used to make a 
command or a request, or to give permission. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

2d Per. See [thou or you]. 2d Per. See [you or ye]. 

Note. — This mode has only one tense. The subject of a verb in this 
mode being always thou, you, or ye (generally understood), the verb can 
be used only in the second person. 

Verbals. 
Infinitives. — Present. To see. Present Perfect. To have seen. 
Participles. — Pres. Seeing. Past. Seen. Past Perfect. Having seen. 

756. Definition. — A verbal is a form of the verb that as- 
sumes, or expresses in a general way, an act or state without 
affirmi?ig it of a subject. 



254 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "BEP 



757. 



Be or am. 



Conjugation of the Verb " Be 9 " 



PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 



Was. 



Being. 
Indicative Mode. 



Been. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I am. 

2. You are (thou art). 

3. He is. 



Present Tense. 

PLURAL. 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 



Past Tense. 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2. You were (thou wast). 2. You were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. You will be (thou wilt). 2. You will be. 

3. He will be. 3. They will be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. You have been (thou hast). 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. You had been (thou hadst). 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. You will have been. 2. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 



1. I may be. 

2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 



Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 

1. We may be. 

2. You may be. 

3. They may be. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "BE." 255 

Past Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I might be. f 1. We might be. 

2. You might be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. You may have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. You might have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

Subjunctive Mode* 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If you be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If you were (thou wert). 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
2. Be [thou or you], 2. Be [you or ye\ 

Verbals. 

Infinitives. 
Present. To sea. Present Perfect. To have seen. 

Participles. 
Present. Seeing. Present Perfect. Having seen. 

* The forms of the subjunctive mode, different from those of the indicative in the 
present and past tenses, are shown by the full-face type. Am, is, are are indicative 
forms. Be and ivere are used in the subjunctive without change in both the singular 
and plural. 



256 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 

CXCVIIL-CONDITIONAIi CLAUSES. 

758. Some conditional clauses require a verb in the indica- 
tive form. The following statements will be a guide to the 
learner : 

Indicative Mode. 

A condition may be — 

(1) Assumed as a fact; as, 

1. Though wealth is desirable, it is not essential to happiness. 

2. If his work was satisfactory, why did you discharge him? 

(2) May express a present uncertainty; as, 

1. If he is guilty, his punishment will be severe. 

2. I will go and see if he is at home. 

(3) May express a future uncertainty with definite time ; as, 

1. If I am not there by noon, do not wait for me. 

2. If he starts at nine o'clock, he will get there in time. 

759. Some conditional clauses require a verb in the sub- 
junctive form : 

Subjunctive Mode. 
A condition — 

(1) May express a future uncertainty with indefinite time ; as, 

1. If he be convicted, his punishment will be severe. 

2. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he be 

weary of thee. 

(2) May express a supposition with indefinite time ; as, 

1. If I were you, I would not go. 

2. If it were not so, I would have told you. 

(3) May express a supposition implying the contrary to be true ; as, 

1. If he were near enough, I would speak to him [but he is not]. 

2. If he were honest, he would pay me [but he is not]. 

(4) May express a wish implying the contrary, or an intention un- 
fulfilled; as, 

1. I wish I were at home. 

2. O, that thou wert as my brother! 

3. The sentence is, that you be imprisoned. 



CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 257 

Direction. — Choose the correct form of the two inclosed in brackets 
in the following sentences, and give reasons : 

1. If he [be or is] here, ask him to come to me. 

2. Kiss the son, lest he [is or be] angry. 

3. Though he [were or was] industrious, he continued very poor. 

4. If the book [be or is] in print, I can get it for you. 

5. If he [is or be] not there at the appointed time, do not wait for him. 

6. If my friend [was or were] now present, I should be happy. 

7. If the snow [was or were] four feet deep, it would not prevent 

my going. 

760. A condition is sometimes expressed without a sub- 
ordinate conjunction ; as, 

1. Had I the wings of a dove, how soon would I see you again! 

2. Could he have remained, I should have been greatly pleased. 

3. "Were I in your place, I should not do it. 

The question as to whether had (in 1) or could have remained (in 2) 
should be considered as belonging to the indicative and potential moods, 
respectively, or to the subjunctive* is one on which grammarians do not 
agree. Indeed, it is of little importance, as the form of these verbs in 
conditional clauses is not different from their form in clauses not condi- 
tional, and consequently no mistake is likely to occur in their use. 



CXCIX.— VERBS. 

761. Progressive Form. — The present participle joined to 
the verb be as an auxiliary in all the modes and tenses makes 
the progressive form of the verb ; as, I am freezing the cream. 

Passive Form. — The past participle of a transitive verb is 
joined to the verb be as an auxiliary in all the modes and 
tenses to make the passive form of the verb ; as, The cream 
is frozen. 

* Whatever the subjunctive mode may have meant in the past, or however com- 
prehensive was its grasp of conditional clauses in general, the fact, as to its present 
use, seems to be, that it is fading out of our language— about the only remnant left 
being the forms of the verb be in the present and past tenses. The tendency seems to 
be to refer to the indicative and potential modes all verbs in conditional clauses whose 
forms correspond to the forms of those modes. 



258 VERBS— PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. 

Conjugation of Progressive and Passive Forms. 

Remark.— Only two tenses are here given. The pupil should finish 
the conjugation of this and of the other modes, first using one form 
throughout, and then the other. 

Indicative Mode. 





Present Tense. 






SINGULAR. 








PLURAL. 


1. 


I am ^ 






1. 


We are ^ 


2. 


You are V seeing. 
He is J 






2. 


You are i seeing. 


3. 






3. 


They are J 


1. 


I am ^| 






1. 


We are -^ 


2. 


You are j> seen. 






2. 


You are I seen. 


3. 


He is J 






3. 


They are J 






Past 


Ten 


SE. 






SINGULAR. 








PLURAL. 


1. 


I was ^ 






1. 


We were ^ 

You were }► seeing. 


2. 


You were > seeing 






2. 


3. 


He was J 






3. 


They were J 


1. 


I was ^ 






1. 


We were ^ 
You were } seen. 


2. 


You were V seen. 






2. 


3. 


He was J 






3. 


They were J 



762. Synopsis. — Giving a synopsis is making a selection 
from the conjugation of a verb, of a particular person in each 
tense, in either number. Synopsis means a collective view. 



Synopsis of See, Active Voice. 



1. Synopsis of the 
Indicative Mode, I 
being the subject: 

Present. I see. 
Past. I saw. 

Future. I shall see. 
Pres. Perf. I have seen. 
Past Perf. I had seen. 
Fut. Perf. I shall have 
seen. 



2. Synopsis of the 
Indicative Mode, Tie 
being the subject: 



3. Synopsis of the In- 
dicative Mode, they be- 
ing the subject: 



Present. 


He sees. 


Present. They see. 


Past. 


He saw. 


Past. They saw. 


Future. 


He will see. 


Future. They will see. 


Pres. Perf. 


He has seen. 


Pres. Perf. They have seen 


Past Perf. 


He had seen. 


Past Perf. They had seen. 


Fut. Perf. 


He will have 


Fut. Perf. They will have 




seen. 


seen. 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 259 

Potential Mode. 
Model for giving the synopsis of a number of verbs at one time : 

Present, He may sit, set, rise, raise, lie, lay. 

Past. He might sit, set, rise, raise, lie, lay. 

Pres. Perf. He may have sat, set, risen, raised, lain, laid. 

Past Perf. He might have sat, set, risen, raised, lain, laid. 



CC.— SELECTIONS OF POETRY FOR ANALYSIS. 

763. Poetic License. — For the purpose of accommodating words to 
the measure of a line of poetry, they are changed in various ways : 1. 
Words are contracted by an elision [omission] of one or more letters ; as, 
o'er for over; 'gainst for against; 'tis for it is; tho' for though. 2. An 
adjective is used for an adverb ; as, " So sweet she sung " [sweetly], 3. 
Words are shortened or lengthened ; as, mom for morning ; darksome for 
dark ; oedimmed for dimmed. 4. Special words are used ; as, rife, vasty, 
yore. Such use of words is called poetic license, because it is employed 
chiefly by poetical writers. 

Direction. — In the following selections, mention each word that is used 
by poetic license ; then analyze and parse. Also use the selections as exer- 
cises in changing poetry to prose : 

1. Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne, 
In ray less majesty now stretches forth 

Her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world. — Young. 

2. There was tumult in the city, 

In the quaint old Quaker town, 
And the streets were rife with people 
Pacing restless up and down.— Anon. 

3. Then we kissed the little maiden, 

And we spoke in better cheer ; 
And we anchored safe in harbor 
When the morn was shining clear. — J. T. Fields. 

4. Ilowe'er it be, it seems to me 

; Tis only noble to be good. 
Kind hearts are more than coronets, 
And simple faith than Norman blood. — Tennyson. 



260 SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 

5. Ring in the valiant man and free, 

The larger heart, the kindlier hand; 
Ring out the darkness of the land, 
Ring in the Christ that is to be. — Tennyson. 

6. He that filches from me my good name, 
Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
And makes me poor indeed. — Shakespeare. 

7. If I were a voice, — a persuasive voice, — 

That could travel the wide world through, 
I would fly on the beams of the morning light, 
And speak to men with a gentle might, 

And tell them to be true. 
I'd fly, I'd fly o'er land and sea, 
Wherever a human heart might be, 

Telling a tale or singing a song, 

In praise of the right — in blame of the wrong. — Maclcay. 

8. Thou, too, sail on, ship of State! 
Sail on, Union, strong and great! 
Humanity with all its fears, 

With all the hopes of future years, 

Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! 

We know what Master laid thy keel, 

What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel, 

Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 

What anvils rang, what hammers beat, 

In what a forge, and what a heat, 

Were shaped the anchors of thy hope. — Longfellow. 

TO-DAY. 

9. Here hath been dawning another blue day, 
Think, wilt thou let it slip useless away? 

Out of eternity this new day was born; 
Into eternity at night must return. 

See it aforetime no eye ever did, 

So soon it again from all must be hid. 

So, here hath been dawning another blue day, 
Think, wilt thou let it slip useless away? — T. Carlyle. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



261 



CCL— LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



764. The following list 'contains most of the irregular verbs in the 
language. Those in italics are obsolete, or now but little used. Those 
marked with an R may also be used as regular verbs ; and, when the R is 
in heavy type, it indicates that the regular form is preferable. The pres- 
ent participle is here omitted, as it is always formed by adding ing to the 
root- verb : 



Pres. T. 


Past T. 


Past P. 


Pres. T. 


Past T. 


Past P. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Am 


was 


been 


Catch 


caught, r 


caught, R. 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Chide 


chid 


j chidden 


Awake 


awoke, r. 


awaked 


]chid 


Bake 


baked 


baked, baleen 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Bear (to 


bore, bare 


born 


Cleave,* 


j clove 
( cleft 


cloven 


bring forth) 




(to split) 


cleft 


Bear, for- 


bore, bare 


borne 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


(to carry) 






Clothe 


clad, R. 


clad, R. 


Beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


Come, be- 


came 


come 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Bend 


bent, R. 


bent, R. 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Bereave 


bereft, R. 


bereft, r. 


Crow 


crew, R. 


crowed 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Bet 


bet, R. 


bet, r. 


Dare f 


durst, R. 


dared 


Bless 


blest, R. 


blest, R. 


(to ventm 


e) 




Bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt, r. 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Dig 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Dive 


dove, r. 


dived 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Do 


did 


done 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Break 


j broke 
j brake 


broken 


Dream 


dreamt, R 


. dreamt, r. 


broke 


Dress 


drest, R. 


drest, R. 


Breed 


bred 


bred 






j drank, 
( drunk 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Drink 


drank 


Build 


built, r. 


built, r. 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Burn 


burnt, R. 


burnt, R. 


Dwell 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Fall, be- 


fell 


fallen 



* Cleave, to adhere, is regular. 



t Dare, to challenge, is regular. 



262 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Pres. T. 


Past T. 


Past P. 


Pres, T. 


Past T. 


Past P. 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Let 


let 


let 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Lie (recline) lay 


lain 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Light 


lit, R. 


lit, R. 


Find 


found 


found 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Make 


made 


made 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Meet 


met 


met 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, r. 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Pass 


past, R. 


past, R. 


Get 


got 


got, gotten 


Pay, re- 


paid 


paid 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, r. 


Pen 


pent, R. 


pent, R. 


Gird 


girt, r. 


girt, R. 


(to inclose) 




Give, for- 


gave 


given 


Put 


put 


put 


Go, under- 


went 


gone 


Quit 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


Grave * 


graved 


graven 


Rap 


rapt, R. 


rapt, R. 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Read 


read 


read 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Hang f 


hung 


hung 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Have 


had 


had 


Ride 


rode 


ridden, rode 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Heave 


hove, R. 


hoven, R. 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, r. 


Rive 


rived 


riven, r. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Run 


ran, run 


run 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R. 


Hold, be- 


held 


held, holden 


Say 


said 


said 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


See 


saw 


seen 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Kneel 


knelt, R. 


knelt, r. 


Seethe 


sod, R. 


sodden, R. 


Knit 


knit, r. 


knit, r. 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Know 


knew 


known 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Lade 


laded 


laden, r. 


Set 


set 


set 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Lead, mis- 


led 


led 


Shape 


shaped 


shapen, R. 


Leave 


left 


left 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, R. 


Lean 


leant, R. 


leant, R. 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn, R. 


Leap 


leapt, R. 


leapt, R; 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Shine 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 



* Engrave is regular. 

t Hang, to take life by hanging, is regular. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



263 



Pres. T. 


Past T. 


Past P. 


Pres. T. 


Past T. 


Past P. 


Shoe 
Shoot 


shod 
shot 


shod 
shot , 


Strike 


struck 


j struck, 
( stricken 


Show 


showed 


shown, R. 


String 


strung 


strung 


Shrink 


j shrunk, ) 
( shrank ) 


shrunk 


Strive 
Strow 


strove 
strowed 


striven 
strown, r. 


Shred 
Shut 


shred 
shut 


shred 
shut 


Swear 


j swore, ) 
( sware ) 


sworn 


Sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweat, R. 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen, R. 


Slay 
Sleep 


slew 
slept 


slain 
slept 


Swim 


j swam, ) 
I swum ) 


swum 


Slide 


slid 


( slidden 
(slid 


Swing 
Take 


swung 
took 


swung 
taken 


Sling 


slung, slang slung 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Tear 


tore, tare 


torn 


Slit 


slit 


slit 


Tell 


told 


told 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Sow 


sowed 


sown, r. 


Thrive 


throve 


thriven, R 


Speak 


j spoke, ) 
( spake ) 


spoken 


Throw 
Thrust 


threw 
thrust 


thrown 
thrust 


Speed 
Spend 


sped 
spent 


sped 
spent 


Tread 


j trod, 
( trode 


trodden 
trod 


Spin 


spun, span 


spun 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen, R 9 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


Wake 


woke 


woke, R. 


Split 


split 


split 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Spring 


( sprang, > 
( sprung ) 


sprung 


Wed 

Weep 


wed 
wept 


wed, r. 
wept 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Wet 


wet, R. 


wet, R. 


Stay 


staid, R. 


staid, R. 


Whet 


whet, R. 


whet, r. 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Win 


won 


won 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Wind 


wound, R 


wound 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Work 


wrought, 


r. wrought, r 


Stride 


( strode 
} strid 


stridden, 
strid 


Wring 
Write 


wrung 
wrote 


wrung 
written 



A number of regular verbs are sometimes spelled in an abbreviated 
form, with t instead of ed ; as, spelt, spilt, learnt, smelt, blent, spoilt, 
crept, knelt. 



264 USES OF THE INFINITIVE. 

765. Definition. — A redundant verb is one whose past tense 
or past participle is formed both regularly and irregularly. The 
verbs marked n in the list of irregular verbs are redundant. 

766. Definition. — A defective verb is one that has at most 
only two of the principal parts — the present and past. Some 
of the defective verbs have only the present. 





List of Defective 


Verbs. 




Pres. T. 


Fast T. 


Pres. T. 


Past T. 


Beware, 


. 


Shall, 


should. 


Can, 


could. 


Will, 


would. 


May, 


might. 


Wis, 


wist. 


Must, 


. 


Wit, 


. 


Ought, 
> 


quoth. 


Wot, 


. 



CCn.— USES OF THE INFINITIVE, 

767. The time of the act or state expressed by an infinitive 
may be subsequent to, correspondent icitli, or prior to, that ex- 
pressed by the principal verb ; as, 

1. He intended to see you about the matter [time, subsequent]. 

2. He appeared to enjoy his visit [time, correspondent with]. 

3. I happened to have seen him once before [time, prior to]. 

768. When the time of an act or state expressed by an in- 
finitive is subsequent to, or correspondent loith, that expressed 
by the principal verb, the present infinitive must be used ; as, 

1. I intended to go with you yesterday [not to have gone]. 

2. I expected to be in Chicago to-day [not to have been], 

3. He seemed to enjoy the lecture last evening [not to have enjoyed], 

769. When the time expressed by the infinitive is prior 
to that expressed by the principal verb, the perfect infinitive 
must be used ; as, 

1. He believed his friend to have been wronged. 

2. He appeared to have seen better days. 



USES OF THE INFINITIVE. 265 

Direction. — Correct the use of the infinitive in such of the following 
sentences as need correction, and give reasons : 

1. I meant, when 1 first came, to have bought all Paris. 

2. It was my intention to have collected many interesting specimens. 

3. I meant to have written to you before to-day. 

4. He was proud to be born in France. 

5. I should have been glad to see him before I left. 

6. I expected to see you early this morning. 

Direction. — Insert the proper form of the infinitive of the verb in 
brackets at the end of each of the following sentences : 

1. When I arrived, I expected [ ] you waiting, [find.] 

2. I should be proud [ ] so fine a book as this, [write.] 

3. I should like very much [ ] him. [see.] 

4. He appeared [ ] the book before, [see.] 

5. He intended [ ] a good impression, but failed, [make.] 

6. He knew better than [ ] his case, [present] 

7. We happened [ ] present when the President arrived, [be.] 

8. He appeared [ ] from the country, [come.] 

9. I intended [ ] him go with me. [let.] 

10. They seemed [ ] themselves, [enjoy.] 

11. He was known [ ] guilty of the crime, [be.] 

12. He expected [ ] last week, [return.] 



CCIH.-USES OF 'SHALL" AND "WELL." 

770. When a person determines for himself, or for himself 
with others, will is used, and the subject is in the first per- 
son ; as, 

1. I will help you to-morrow. 

2. We will attend to the matter very soon. 

3. I will write to Washington to-day. 

But when a person determines for another, shall is used, and the sub- 
ject is in the second or third person ; as, 

1. You shall obey me. 

2. He shall not go with us. 
+ 3. They shall feel my power. 

Note. — Shall here implies duty or obligation on the part of the subject, 
and also implies power outside of the subject to enforce the obligation. 
18 



266 USES OF "SHALL" AND "WILL." 

771. When a person foretells for himself [expresses inten- 
tion], or simply announces what is to happen, shall is used 
with a subject in the first person ; as, 

1. / shall start in the morning. 

2. We shall see you again to-morrow. 

3. When shall we have fair weather again? 

But when a person foretells for another [indicates another's intention], 
or announces what is to happen to him, will is used with a subject in the 
second or third person ; as, 

1. I am sure you will help me. 

2. He will stay in Chicago a month. 

3. They will be in town next week. 

772. In interrogative sentences, shall is used with a subject 
in the first or the second person to indicate mere intention 
[probability] on the part of the one of whom the question is 

asked; as, 

Shall I hear from you soon? 

Shall you be in your office to-morrow? 

But will is used with a subject in the second person when the ques- 
tion partakes of the nature of a request ; as, 

Will you be in your office to-morrow? 

773. Should and would. — Should and would are the past tenses 
of shall and will, and the same principles are applied in their use as to 
the present tense. 

Direction. — In the following, correct the complete sentences, and sup- 
ply shall or will in the incomplete. Give reasons for corrections : 

1. Will I put some coal on the fire ? 

2. I will drown; nobody shall save me. 

3. I have sometimes asked, will we ever be satisfied? 

4. Will I be allowed to occupy this seat? 

5. I will suffer, if I do not wear my overcoat. 

6. Would we hear a good lecture if we would go? 

7. I [ ] see my father this afternoon. 

8. We [ ] then be obliged to retreat. 

9. [ ] I find you here when I return? 

10. I fear I [ ] be too late for the train. 

11. [ J I bring you a glass of water? 



RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS. 267 

CCIV.— RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS. 

774. Rules for capitals are scattered throughout the preceding les- 
sons. For the sake of convenience, they are here repeated, and a few 
others added. 

Begin with capital letters : 

(1) Every sentence and every line of poetry. 

(2) Proper nouns and proper adjectives. 

(3) The names of objects strongly personified ; as, 

" War flings his torch into the doomed hamlet ; Peace strews 
her blossoms o'er the plain." 

(4) Names of the Deity ; as, 

God ; Creator ; the Almighty ; the Supreme Being. 
Note. — Many authors say that a pronoun standing for the name of 
Deity should also begin with a capital letter. But in the authorized 
editions of the English Bible such pronouns do not begin with capitals. 

(5) Titles of office, honor, and respect ; as, 

The Honorable William M. Evarts, Senator from New York ; 
Alexander the Great ; Peter Cooper, Esq. 

(6) The first word of a direct quotation ; as, 

Coleridge says, " Experience is the best schoolmaster." 

Note. — But an indirect quotation should not begin with a capital letter 
nor be set off by a comma ; as, Coleridge says that experience is the best 
schoolmaster. 

(7) Every noun, adjective, verb, and adverb in the titles of books, head- 
ings of compositions, chapters, etc. ; as, 

" What a Blind Man Saw in Europe " ; " The Decline and Fall 
of the Roman Empire " ; Ci My Trip to Niagara Falls." 

(8) The names of the months and of the days of the week ; as, 

The concert was given on Monday evening, the 23d of January. 

(9) The pronoun / and the interjection should always be capitals. 
(10) Words denoting events, eras, written instruments, or institutions 

of special importance ; as, 

The Centennial Exhibition ; the Fourth of July ; the Revolu- 
tionary War ; the Constitution of the United States ; the 
City Hall; the College of the City of New York; Inde- 
pendence Hall. 



268 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

CCV.— RULES OF SYNTAX. 

775. Rule 1. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a finite 
verb must be in the nominative case. 

Rule 2. — A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an intransi- 
tive or of a passive verb must be in the same case as the subject to which 
it refers. See [501]. 

Note. — When the attribute complement of an infinitive means the same 
as a preceding noun or pronoun in the objective case, the complement 
must be in the objective case ; as, " They took me to be him" 

Rule 3. — A noun or pronoun used independently or absolutely must 
be in the nominative case. 

Rule 4. — A noun or pronoun used as the object of a transitive verb, 
of a verbal, or of a preposition, must be in the objective case. 

Rule 5. — A noun or pronoun used in apposition must be in the same 
case as the noun or pronoun which it explains. 

Rule 6, — A noun or pronoun used to limit another noun by denoting 
possession, origin, or fitness, must be in the possessive case. 

Rule 7. — A pronoun must represent its antecedent in gender, person, 
and number. 

Rule 8. — An adjective is used to modify a noun or a pronoun. 
Note. — An adjective is sometimes used indefinitely, or absolutely, as 
the complement of an infinitive in a subject phrase. 

Rule 9. — A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 

Rule 10. — An adverb is used to modify a verb, a verbal, an adjective, 
or another adverb. 

Rule 11. — A conjunction is used to connect words, phrases, clauses, 
or members. 

Note. — A conjunction is sometimes used simply as an introductory 
word. It may connect a word element to a like phrase element. 

Rule 12. — A preposition is used to introduce a phrase and to join it 
to the word which the phrase modifies. 

Rule 13. — A verbal is used as a substantive, or as a modifying 

element. 

Rule 14. — An interjection is used independently. 



SUBJECTS FOB COMPOSITIOX. 



269 



CCVI.— SUBJECTS 

776. 

Poetry. 

The importance of trifles. 

The boat-race. 

Advantages of order. 

Base-ball. 

A day's fishing. 

Shall I study for a profession ? 

The power of habit. 

How I got left. 

Self-denial. 

The power of fashion. 

American humor. 

Seeing the managerie. 

Boys I don't like. 

The self-made man. 

Our Saturdays. 

The Pratt Institute. 

Real heroes. 

My forget fulness. 

Gains in literary work. 

Why I don't carry an unbrella. 

Some old fashions. 

Variety of flowers. 

The ideal country. 

Importance of mathematics. 

The work of the blind. 

What I know of maple sugar. 

Voices in our ears. 

The art of writing. 

Things that cost nothing. 

Scotland in the 17th century. 

The study of nature. 

Making the best of things. 

A day in the woods. 

Deserve success if you would 

have it. 
What I know of the signal 

service. 



FOR COMPOSITION. 

Politeness. 

Scott and Dickens compared. 
Common sense. 
Class distinctions in America. 
Horseback-riding. 
Valentines. 

Coming to school in a street-car. 
Girls I like. 
Silk manufacture. 
Our postman's trials. 
The feelings of a tardy girl. 
Animal instinct. 
Shall I learn short-hand? 
Lawn-tennis. 
True business principles. 
A candy-pull. 
The peppered cream tart. 
Why I was tardy. 
Our Friday afternoons. 
Books I like best. 
French or German, which? 
Variety of trees. 
Making bread. 
A woman's education. 
The imagination. 
House-cleaning. 

Shall we ever have another war? 
The surprise party. 
Building a fire. 
To-day's good things. 
Life on a farm. 
The microscope. 
A day's boating. 
Rewards of merit in life. 
Why I don't like a mouse. 
Queen Elizabeth as a woman. 
What I know of the life-saving 
service. 



270 SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION. 

Subjects for Short Exercises. 

1. Write a ten-word telegraph message. 

2. Write a message of ten words making three statements. 

3. Write a circular advertising your business. (Choose that of a 
grocer, dry-goods merchant, clothier, hatter, or coal-dealer.) 

4. Write an advertisement for a house you have to rent, to occupy 
one inch, single column. 

5. Write five local news items for your paper, each to occupy not 
more than five printed lines. 

6. Write a notice, for publication, of your church festival. 

7. Write an application for a position as clerk in a dry-goods house. 

8. Write a business card suitable for a general merchant just begin- 
ning business in your village. 

9. Write a courteous circular letter to your customers, requesting 
them to pay up. 

10. Write a description, for publication, of some accident to which 
you were an eye-witness. 

11. Write an invitation to Mr. and Mrs. Chas. J. Martin to dine with 
you, and also a proper acceptance of such invitation. 

12. Write a notice, for publication, of a change in location of your 
business. 

Note. — In these subjects for compositions, the capitals for particular 
words are omitted ; they must be supplied by pupils according the rule 
under [774 (7)]. 



APPENDIX. 



CCVn.— DIRECTIONS FOR DIAGRAMMING. 

777. If possible, use paper sufficiently wide to contain the whole sen- 
tence on one line. When more than one line is needed, place a whole 
phrase, clause, or member on a second line. Mark a — 

Subject word, J_ ; subject phrase or clause, * , 

Predicate-verb, 8 ; infinitive or participle ▼. = verbal. 

Object comp. (word), ^c. ; object phrase or clause, °\ c - 

Attribute comp. (word), a^c. ; attribute phrase or clause, a \ c> 

Object in a phrase, ^ ; attribute in a phrase, a. 

Appositive word, ap. ; adverbial objective, ad. o. 

Independent word, md. ; independent phrase or clause, in ^ m 

Introductory adv. or conj., int. 

Adjective or adv. clause, , » , ; also a dependent phrase in a com- 
plex phrase, or whenever necessary to make the relation clear. 

Join modifying to principal elements by straight lines. (See next 
page.) 

Join as one two or more adjectives or adverbs standing together and 
modifying the same word. 

Underline the connective between members with one line, and between 
clauses, phrases, and words with two lines. 

Indicate an omission of a preposition or of the sign of the infinitive 
by the caret ( A ) ; the omission of subject, verb, object, or attri- 
bute by a mark over the caret, ' ' e c " 

After a little practice, an article standing next to its noun need not 

be joined to it, especially in phrases. 
Inverted sentences may be transposed when written for diagramming 

(see diagram 34). 



Construction of brackets. 



272 



APPENDIX. 



Simple Sentences. 

JL JL o. c. 

1. An old sailor soon mended the ragged sail. 



1 o. 2 o. c. o. 

2. Fine groves of oranges lined the banks of the river. 

T_T T — ] 



_1_ _^_ JL L I |o. 

3. A large flock of wild geese flew directly over our heads. 

i n zzi t i 



4. He dived to the bottom of the river for pebbles. 



T 



CL 1 f 1 



5. During the early part of the day, dark clouds arose above the horizon. 



1 2 ad. o. o. c. o. 

6. The grocer sold a him a bushel of potatoes. 

"E_ZT T T IJ T I 



1 



I I i 



7. That unfortunate old blind man fell into the river. [459.J 

I J~ T 1 



ap. 



X 



"lap. 



J^T 



8. London, the capital of the British Empire, and the largest city in the world. 



ap. 



is situated on the Thames, a river in England. 

— I 1 TU T 1 



Mi. 



2 o. c. 



X 



3_o_ 



9. Hope, the balm of life, soothes us under every misfortune. 

t 1 nz i 



1 2 o. c. o. 1,2 F o. c. I 

10. California produces not only gold in abundance, but A quicksilver also. 



n 



DIAGRAMMING.— SIMPLE SENTENCES. 273 





12 o. r^ " o. 


11. 


That cool, fearless fireman rushed into the house and up the burning stairs. 




1 II =1 




1 ap. 2 a. c. 


12. 


The French emperor, Napoleon, was a great general. 

1 III II 




2 1 o. c. o. c. 


13. 


Has Sarah's brother my cloak and umbrella? 

1 1 1 1 — 




o.c. 1 2 2 


14. 


The stormy sea I do not fear. 




1 1 1 II 1 




ind. int. 2 1 


15. 


Scotland ! there is music in the sound ! 




1 1 



Some consider that the phrase in the sound refers to music rather 
than to is. The question depends upon whether the verb is, as here used, 
is a copula, or is a complete verb denoting mere existence [511, 512]. 
1 2 a. c. v. o. a. c. v. 

16. They are ready to find fault and hard to please. 
TT ZT T I = J T I 



1 2 



17. It is a difficult task to root out old errors. 



18. A refined mind loves to contemplate the works of Nature. 



19. The way to acquire knowledge is to labor for it. 



1 2 2 1 o. c. v. o. 

20. He would not let me a sit near a him. 

~TZ_TLj XJJ~T T 



21. To practice industry is to insure success. 



274 



APPENDIX, 



22. The branch, broken by the wind, fell to the ground. 



TT 



J 



in. int. 1 



23. everlasting shame ! that I should live to see a day like a this ! 

— i — ~r i i 



a. 2 



24. Becoming a good man did not atone for past misdeeds. 

~ i r Tu~i_n~r_ i 

25. My poverty, but not my will, consents. 

J_ _2_ 1 2 | [ 

My poverty consents, but my will a not. 



26. The soldier, wounded by a shell, was carried to the rear. 

"TZ I CZ ZZ3 



1 1 2 _o_ _o_ _o_ 

27. The wind blew a all day, with violence, from the north. 



v. a. 2 o. c. 

28. To become a good scholar requires hard study. 



1 2 



29. a Be on thy guard against the poison of flattery. 

~n_r r i 



1 2 o. c. 



~!o. 



30. We saw a squirrel seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree, 



busily engaged in gnawing an acorn. 



DIAGRAMMING,— COMPLEX SENTENCES. 275 

ind. 



1 2 o. c. 



31. To speak plainly, I consider you dishonest. 
Complex Sentences. 



2 v. — o. c. 



32. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

~L_J = 1 T 



33. The ocean is as deep as the mountains are high. 



34. When Columbus had finished speaking, the sovereigns sunk upon 
their knees. 



JL JL _L 1 o. 

The sovereigns sunk upon their knees 

T ~T ~ T T I 



when Columbus had finished speaking. 

= I Z=] 



35. You may pursue those studies which suit your taste. 



JLL 1 2 o. 2 o. c. o. 

36. He who yields to temptation debases himself with a debasement 

T 1 ~LZ i 



from which he never can arise. 

nz zr 



J_ 2 a^_c. J_ oc.. JL _2_ 

37. I am monarch of all a I survey. 

o. c. 



1 2 int. 1 _2 a. c. 

38. Columbus believed that the earth is spherical. 



276 



APPENDIX. 



o. 1 2 



39. The missing vessel for which we looked so long has arrived. 



int. 



1 2 o. c. 2 



40. That the stars are suns is taught by astronomers. 



41. The universal belief is that the earth is spherical. 



o. 2 



42. When we shall start for Europe has not been settled. 

x n~n zu tu t — i — 



12 a. c. 



I 1(2 o. c. 



43. I am unable to explain why he left the country. 

n~ i 



12 o. c. 1 2 



1 ~1 o. 



44. He spoke of what* he had done for his country. 



a. c. 1 



45. If elephants were much larger, they could not support their own weight. 



1 2 a. c. 12 a. c. 



46. Virtue is as rare as it is admirable. 

1LJ- =1 1 



a. c. o. 2 1 a. c. 

47. Wisdom is more valuable than the richest mines of earth a • 



* What he had done, etc., as a whole, is the object of the preposition o/; but 
what is the object complement of the verb had done. 



DIAGRAMMING.— COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



277 



Compound Sentences, 

1 2 , o^. J_ 2_ o. c . 

48. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger. 

^r_^r t t ~ ~n zr t_t 



adv. o. 



X 



49. They started to go a home by a shorter route, 

~T~ 



1 2 o. c. o. 

but they lost their way in the woods. 

T " T~ T ' 



50. Leaves have their time to fall, 

TJIZJ 



1 2 ! o. c. I | "1 o. 

And flowers a to wither at the north- wind's breath. 



l 



2 a. c. 



1 



51. Kind hearts are more than coronets a » 

~r zr I t 

J_ 2 f a. c. | 1 2_ 

And simple faith a > than Norman blood a • 

52. If you snap the golden threads of thought, they will float away 

on the air like the film of the gossamer, and I shall never be 
able to recover them. 



l 2 2 [ o. o. o. 

They will float away on the air like a the film of the gossamer, 

_ 1 | 



L 



1 2 o. c. o. 

if you snap the golden threads of thought, 



1 2_ 2_ a. c. q^ 

and I shall never be able to recover them. 

nr tlj ~ r i 



278 APPENDIX. 

53. Seen at a little distance, as she walked across the churchyard and 
down the village street, she seemed to be attired in purest 
white, and her hair looked like a dash of gold on a lily. 



i 



Seen at a little distance, she seemed to be attired in purest white, 

i i r r i 



1 2 a. c. 1 o. o. 

and her hair looked like a a dash of gold on a lily, 



H: 



J_ JL o. I lo. 

as she walked across the churchyard and down the village street. 

T J 

Note.— The relation of the dependent clause, in 53, to the two mem- 
bers may also be shown iji the following arrangement : 

Seen .... distance, she .... white, -\ 

(and) V as she walked .... street, 

her hair looked like .... lily, J 

Sentences for Analysis. 

1. An honest man's word is as good as his bond. 

2. If you would not be forgotten as soon as you are dead, either write 
things worth reading, or do things worth writing. 

3. The poorest education that teaches self-control is better than the 
best that neglects it. 

4. The aim of all intellectual training for the mass of the people 
should be to cultivate common sense. 

5. The aim of education should be to teach rather how to think than 
what to think. 

6. In a language like ours, where so many words are derived from 
other languages, there are few modes of instruction more useful or more 
amusing than that of accustoming young people to seek for the etymology, 
or primary meaning, of the words they use. There are cases in which more 
knowledge may be conveyed by the history of a word than by the history 
of a campaign. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 279 

CCVIII.-FALSE SYNTAX. 

778. Direction. — These exercises in the correction of false syntax may 
be used in the regular order of progress as fast as the text, calling for their 
use, is mastered ; also as a review as often as necessary. Pupils should be 
required to refer to the text for reasons for the corrections. 

In speaking and writing, care should be taken to avoid an — 

(1) Improper use or omission of an article: 

1. This is an hard task [70]. 

2. Nouns have two numbers ; the singular and plural [454]. 

3. A lion is bold* [452]. 

(2) Improper use of adjectives : 

1. These kind of people will never succeed [574]. 

2. Have you any new children's shoes? [582]. 

3. This child is real sick [620]. 

4. Which of the two sisters is the tallest? [556]. 

5. He always reads very slow [620J. 

6. The rivers flow in twof opposite directions. 

(3) Improper use of adverbs: 

1. This velvet feels smoothly [513]. 

2. I feel nicely, thank you [513]. 

3. We arrived home safely [513]. 

4. This machine is more perfect than the other [567]. 

(4) Improper use of nominative forms: 

1. Who will you vote for? [357]. 

2. Between you and I, he is a crank [357]. 

3. He from my childhood I have known [256 (3)]. 

4. Can you forgive we girls? [256 (3)]. 

5. They imagined it to be she [712], 

6. The girls deceived you and I shamefully [256 (3)]. 

(5) Improper use of objective forms: 

1. You and me must hurry to school [256 (1)]. 

2. Whom do you think was with me? [256 (1)]. 

3. There was no chance of him recovering his money [657], 

4. Was it him that you saw? [501]. 

5. I can run as fast as him [256 (1)]. 



* The lion ; not any single lion, but lions as a class. 

t Only tivo directions can possibly be opposite, therefore two is unnecessary. 



280 APPENDIX. 

6. Them that seek wisdom shall find it [256 (1)]. 

7. I am sure that it was him [501]. 

8. Him being disabled, we carried him to the rear [702]. 

(6) Improper use of possessive forms : 

1. Everything is judged by it's use [237, 261]. 

2. They are wolves in sheeps' clothing [226]. 

3. John's uncle's brother's farm was sold yesterday [359]. 

4. I bought this book at Smith's and Brown's store [488]. 

5. We keep ladie's fine shoes [227]. 

(7) Improper use of verb forms: 

1. A variety of pleasing objects meets the eye [430]. 

2. Each day and each hour bring new duties [331], 

3. The jury is individually responsible [334]. 

4. Many a captain, with all the crew, have been lost at sea.* 

5. Such phenomena is very wonderful [323]. 

6. Has the horses been fed? [323]. 

7. There appears to be many others interested [323]. 

8. He don't know his lesson [269]. 

9. Columbus believed that the earth was spherical [739, f. n."]. 

10. I seen him strike my brother [469, caution], 

11. They had broke the ice before we arrived [469]. 

12. Plenty of oranges is brought from Florida [430]. 

13. Every one of them have the same answer [429]. 

14. That orator and statesman have great influence [329]. 

15. The number of voters in the district are very large [430]. 

16. I intended to have done it yesterday [768]. 

17. If he was here, he could see for himself [759 (3)]. 

(8) Improper use of pronouns: 

1. This is the horse whom we all admire [672]. 

2. The lion is an animal who meets his foe boldly [672]. 

3. The class whom we heard recite have been dismissed [221]. 

4. This is the same horse which I drove yesterday [675 (6)]. 

5. We saw the prisoners and the arms which were captured 

[675 (1)]. 

6. The moon dispensed his silvery light [180], 

7. Neither the merchant nor the lawyer made themselves rich 

[273]. 

* A singular subject, followed by a phrase introduced by with, should have a verb 
in the singular number. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 281 

8. Many a flower will waste their sweetness on the desert air [271]. 

9. Every man and every boy received their wages.* 

10. That is the same' man who was here yesterday [675 (6)]. 

11. The boy who came late and that sits at the last desk may 

now recite, f 

(9) Improper use of prepositions: 

1. This is in accordance to your ideas [414]. 

2. We can not allow of such conduct [420]. 

3. He almost died for thirst. 

4. Hurry and get in the carriage [409]. 

5. 1 was to Boston last week [408]. 

6. I bought this dress to Stewart's. 

7. I met him out to the park. 

(10) Use of inappropriate words: 

1. Every little girl was dressed alike. 

2. 1 never was as thirsty in my life [709], 

3. He made no farther appeal for aid [561]. 

4. They will never be no wiser [593], 

5. If you wish to succeed, do like I do [427]. 

6. fairest flower! no sooner blown hut blasted. 

7. The teacher learned me how to draw good [611, 558], 

8. Neither the army or the navy was represented [708]. 

9. We can not succeed without we try. 

10. The death of his son greatly effected him. 

11. He was that poor he could not buy a pair of shoes. 

12. I expect he must have arrived last evening. 

13. I have no other hope but this4 

14. The opinion was more universal than I had supposed [567], 

15. He does not know if his father is at home.* 

16. I did not know but what you were angry. || 

17. I do not deny but what he is honest. || 

18. I fear lest something dreadful has happened. || 

19. Try and come early to-morrow [634, caution]. 

* When two or more singular antecedents connected by and are preceded by each, 
every, or no, they must be represented by a singular pronoun. 

t When two relative clauses are connected by a conjunction, the same relative 
should be used in each. 

X Than should follow else, other, and otherwise. 

# If should not be used when whether is meant. 

1 But what or lest should not be used for but or that. 
19 



282 • APPENDIX. 

(11) Improper omissio?i or insertion of the adjective other in sentences 
containing comparative clauses : 

1. Milton is more sublime than any of the poets. 

2. This State exports more cotton than all the States. 

3. Hope is the most constant of all the other passions. 

4. A fondness for show is, of all other follies, the most vain. 

5. The Nile is the longest of any river in Africa. 

6. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 

Explanation. — In 1, " Milton " being included in " any of the poets," is 
represented as more sublime than himself. By inserting other between 
the and poets the sense is complete. In 2, the same correction should be 
made. In 3 and 4, other should be omitted to make the sense complete. 
In 5, say " The Nile is longer than any other river " ; or, " The Nile is 
the longest river," etc. 

(12) Improper repetition or omission of words; or the repetition of 
an idea in different words [tautology] : 

1. He might have succeeded and is now fully convinced of it. * 

2. The carriage was broken and they compelled to walk home, f 

3. This opinion never has and never can prevail. % 

4. The few who regarded them in their true light were regarded 

as dreamers. 

5. Hence he must necessarily, therefore, be in error. 

6. He appears to enjoy the universal esteem of all men. 

(13) Improper arrangement : 

1. He is an old respectable man [459]. 

2. It not only has form, but life [588]. 

3. The sisters were nearly dressed alike [589]. 

4. We can not afford such another victory [589]. 

5. Adversity both taught us to think and to reason [589]. 

6. A servant will obey a master's orders whom he loves [669]. 

7. We saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose [373]. 

8. Nature tells me, I am the image of God as well as scripture. 

9. We also get salt from the ocean which is very useful to 

man [669]. 

* Supplying he as the subject of is, will make the sense clear. 

t An auxiliary should not be omitted when a second subject is of a different per- 
son or number from the first. 

X When the principal parts of two connected verbs are of different forms, neither 
principal part should be omitted for the purpose of abbreviation. 



RHETORICAL FAULTS. 283 

CCIX.— RHETORICAL FAULTS. 

779. Grammar teaches how to use language correctly. 

780. Rhetoric teaches how to use language with clearness, force, 
and elegance. 

781. Clearness in the use of words should be observed : 

1. It is a long time since I have been devoted to your interest [obscure]. 

2. I have been devoted to your interest for a long time [clear]. 

3. I can not think of leaving you without distress [obscure]. 

4. I can not, without distress, think of leaving you [clear]. 

An improper arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses, or the omis- 
sion of some necessary word, often renders the meaning more or less 
obscure ; i. e., makes it difficult to ascertain the meaning intended, as in 
1 and 3 above, and in 9 and 10, under the head of improper arrange- 
ment [778 (12)]. 

An obscure sentence is ambiguous when either of two meanings may 
be taken. 

782. Obscurity is a fault that leaves us wholly in doubt as to the 
meaning intended. 

783. Ambiguity is a fault that leaves us in doubt as to which of 
two possible meanings is intended ; as, 

1. I think he likes me better than you. 

2. An ivory-handled knife was found by a child that has a broken back. 

3. Robert promised his father that he would pay his debts. 

4. He liked to hear her talk better than any of his associates. 



CCX.— EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

784. Direction. — Correct the following sentences, and give reasons : 
1. These apples are real good. 2. Problems of these sort are very easy 
to solve. 3. Nobody should praise themselves. 4. Who is like thou in 
heaven, light of the silent night ! 5. The four sisters were greatly at- 
tached to each other. 6. There was a chance of him recovering the money. 
7. Which do you prefer most, apples or oranges ? 8. Run quick into the 
house. 9. The parent's care for her children is a divine instinct. 10. 
Whom do you think was with me yesterday? 11. He reads too slow. 12. 
How can we tell who to trust ? 13. The money was divided among the 
two brothers. 14, There are plenty of molasses in the jug. 15. He and 



284 APPENDIX. 

they we know, but who are you? 16. In some climates the peasantry goes 
barefoot. 17. Twelve months' interest were due. 18. The ship with all 
her crew were lost. 19. Neither the army or navy was represented. 20. 
There was many giants in those days. 21. Do you know if the train has 
passed! 22. Two of the boys have swam ashore. 23. Every twig, every 
leaf, and every blade of grass teem with life. 24. He is older than me. 

25. I lay the book on the desk, but it is now laying on the floor. 26. It 
was real mean of her to leave us. 27. Meteors may be looked for to-night, 
if pleasant. 28. Obscurity, however, is a fault quite as much as ambiguity. 
29. My purpose is to bring the fact I have stated into prominence. 30. I 
can not deny but what he is honest. 31. I always have, and always shall, 
be an admirer of Whittier. 32. Where are each of the boys to stand % 33. 
Rid yourselves from such bad habits. 34. The farmer went to his neigh- 
bor and told him that his cattle were in his field. 35. Has the second bell 
rang yet ? 36. The traveler by this time had took his seat beside the lady. 
37. A savage is a better state of life than a slave. 38. Metal types were 
now introduced, which before this time had been made of wood. 

39. Climbing to the top of the mountain, the Pacific Ocean was seen. 
40. We had rode only a short distance, when a dark cloud arose. 41. I 
wish I was in California. 42. If my friend be in town, he will call this 
evening. 43. If I had have seen him, I should have known him. 44. If 
you shall call, I will be happy. 45. He knew who should betray him. 46. 
Had you not better lie down awhile % 47. He was completely covered over 
with snow. 48. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend Jones I 
49. Give the balance of our dinner to the cat. 50. How many spoonsful 
make two cupsf ul % 51. We not only found the questions easy, but very 
diverting. 52. Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. 53. On 
each side are pavements for pedestrians that are from six to eight feet 
wide. 54. I fear that I will never see him again. 

55. The assembly was divided in its opinion. 56. He hadn't ought to 
ask such questions. 57. Can they not do the work equally as well % 58. 
He owned an old and new house. 59. I would not have dared done it. 
60. That is very easy done. 61. He suffered more than me. 62. I knew 
it to be she. 63. Let him be who he may, I do not fear him. 64. Of all 
other vices, lying is the meanest. 65. Do you remember who we met yes- 
terday? 66. The society at these places are always objectionable. 67. 
Who did you send the letter to % 68. Either he or I is right. 69. Was I 
so disposed, I could not gratify you. 70. They come soon after you had 
went away. 71. We had rode only a short distance when the storm burst 
upon us. 72. They that are diligent I will reward. 73. Here come my 
old friend and teacher. 74. Either you or I are to blame. 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 285 

75. When will we three meet again 1 76. He taught that the soul was 
immortal. 77. The rise and fall* of nations are an interesting study. 
78. If I stretch a cord tightly between my fingers, I will make it smaller. 
70. A few months before, he was willing to have hazarded all the horrors 
of civil war. 80. Every one must judge of their own feelings. 81. It was 
expected that his first act would have been to have sent for Lords Grey 
and Grenville. 82. Everything that painting, music, and even place, fur- 
nish, were called in to interest the audience. 83. Sorrow not as them that 
have no hope. 84. It is now a week since you haA r e arrived. 85. He was 
not prepared to thoroughly weigh the arguments. 86. The Nile is the 
longest of anv river in Africa. 



CCXI.-FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

785. Definition. — A figure of rhetoric is a deviation from 
ordinary language for that which is more pleasing or impressive. 

786. For the sake of making a stronger impression on the mind, or 
of producing a more pleasing effect, we often make a comparison of one 
object with another essentially different in its nature, but having some 
points of resemblance ; as, 

1. " Ingratitude ! thou fiend with heart like marble." 

2. " So far her voice flowed on like timorous brook." 

787. Definition. — A simile is a direct comparison made in a 
formal way, generally by using like, as, so, or resembles ; as, 

1. Thy smile is as the dawn of the vernal day. 

2. The troubles of a child are like an April shower. 

3. As the rain and the sunshine come and go over the landscape, so do 

tears and smiles over the face of childhood. 

4. Grateful persons resemble fertile fields, which always repay more 

than they receive. 

5. Christianity is to the soul what light is to Nature. 

788. Definition. — A metaphor is an implied simile ; it is a 
comparison in which the resemblance is assumed, not stated ; as, 

1. He is like a lion in the fight [simile]. 

2. He is .a lion in the fight [metaphor]. 

o. The sun rules the day as a king rules a nation [simile], 

* Rise and fall = history, and the meaning is singular. 



286 APPENDIX. 

4. The sun is the king of day [metaphor]. 

5. A man should bridle his anger [metaphor]. 

6. As a restive horse is restrained by the bridle, so should a man 

restrain his anger [simile]. 

Direction. — In the following, change the metaphors to similes, and the 
similes to metaphors : 

1. " Wild fancies gamboled unbridled through his brain." 

2. "Friendship is no plant of hasty growth." 

3. "He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." 

4. "Idleness is the rust of the soul." 

5. "The President is the head of the nation." 

6. The clouds of adversity soon pass away. 

7. "Eternal smiles his emptiness betray, 

As shallow streams run dimpling all the way." 

8. " On life's vast ocean diversely we sail, 

Reason the card,* but passion is the gale." 

789. Caution. — Mixed metaphors should be avoided ; as, 

The apple of discord has been thrown into our midst ; and, if it be 
not nipped in the bud, it will burst into a conflagration that will deluge 
the world. 

790. An allegory is a continued metaphor. 

791. A parable is a brief allegory. 

792. Metonymy means a change of names. It is a figure in which 
there is used the name of a thing suggested by the real thing meant ; as, 
" They have Moses and the prophets " [their writings] ; " Gray hairs should 
be respected " [old age] ; " He drank the fatal cup " [contents] ; " The 
kettle boils " [water]. 

793. Synecdoche is a figure in which a part is called by the name 
of the whole, or the whole by the name of a part, or in which a definite 
number is used for an indefinite ; as, " This roof shall protect us " ; 
"Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay"; "Ten thousand fleets 
sweep over thee in vain." 

794. Hyperbole is an exaggeration of the truth for the purpose of 
making a statement more impressive ; as, " The waves ran mountain- 
high " ; " Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay " ; " Brougham is a 
thunderbolt " ; " Rivers of water run down mine eyes." 

* Card means mariners compass. 



VERSIFICATION. 287 

795. Irony is language that means the contrary of what the words 
themselves imply, the tone or manner of the speaker generally indicating 
the real meaning ; as, " And' Brutus was an honorable man " ; " He saved 
others, himself he can not save." 



CCXH.- VERSIFICATION. 

796. Poetry is a mode of expressing thought and feeling in a meas- 
ured and musical flow of words. 

797. A verse is a line of poetry containing a certain number of 
accented and unaccented syllables. 

798. Rhyme is verse in which the endings of certain lines have 
similar sounds. 

799. Blank verse is verse without rhyme. 

800. The syllables of each line of poetry are measured off into divi- 
sions called feet, there being one long or accented syllable in each foot, 
and one or two short or unaccented syllables ; as, 

1. Trochee : Lives' of | great' men | all' re | mind' us. 

2. Iambus : The cur' | few tolls' | the knell' | of part' | ing day'. 

3. Dactyl : No' ble and \ rare' was her | place' in so j ci' ety. 

4. Anapest : At the close' | of the day' | when the ham' | let is still'. 

Explanation. — The hinds of feet depend on the number of syllables in 
a foot, and the particular syllable accented. As is seen above, the kinds 
of feet called trochee and iambus have each two syllables in a foot, the 
former accented on the first syllable, and the latter on the second. The 
dactyl and the anapest have each three syllables in a foot, the former ac- 
cented on the first syllable, and the latter on the third. 

801. These four are the principal kinds of feet in which English 
poetry is written. Two other kinds, however, are sometimes used: the 
spondee, having two long or accented syllables ; and the pyrrliic, having 
two short or unaccented syllables ; as, 

Brought' death' \ into \ the world' | and all' | our woe'. 
Sometimes there is an omission of one or more syllables in a foot> as is 
indicated by this mark [ o ] in the following lines : 

1. Rap' ping | at' my | cham'ber | door' o. 

2. Dawn' on our | dark' ness and | lend' us thine j aid' o o. 

3. Pa'tient, o | full' of im | por'tance and | grand' in the | pride' of his | in'stincts o. 



288 APPENDIX. 

802. Scanning is dividing a line of poetry into feet, or reading it 
according to the accent, pausing slightly at the end of each foot. 

803. Lines of poetry are also named according to the number of feet 
that compose them ; as, 

1. Monometer: Staying. 

2. Dimeter : Rich 7 the | treas' ure. 

3. Trimeter : From the cen' | ter all round' | to the sea'. 

4. Tetrameter : Fad' ed the | va' pors that | seemed' to en | com' pass him. 

5. Pentameter : Near yon' | der copse' | where once' | the gar' | den smiled'. 

6. Hexameter : On' a | mount' ain j stretched' be | neath' a | hoar' y | wil' low. 

Direction. — The last line is composed of six trochaic feet ; therefore its 
measure [meter] is a trochaic hexameter. Scan the four lines [800], and 
mention the kind of measure of each ; also the six lines given above. 

Recasting Sentences. 

The following example shows some of the different ways in which a 
sentence may be varied without altering the sense : 

1. We may derive many useful lessons from the lower animals. 2. Many useful 
lessons may be derived from the lower animals. 3. The lower animals afford us many 
useful lessons. 4. Many useful lessons are afforded us by the lower animals. 5. If we 
observe the habits of the lower animals, we derive many useful lessons. 6. By ob- 
serving the habits of the lower animals we derive many useful lessons. 7. Many use- 
ful lessons may be derived by observing the habits of the lower animals. 8. The 
lower animals afford many useful lessons to close observers of their habits. 9. The 
lower animals afford many useful lessons to people who closely observe their habits. 
10. By studying the habits of the brute creation we derive many useful lessons. 

It is not possible, in varying a single sentence, to exhaust all the de- 
vices for recasting. Sentences may be varied — 

(1) By changing the active to the passive form [519]. (2) By changing 
the declarative to the interrogative or the exclamative form [348]. (3) By 
the use of introductory it or there [632, 342]. (4) By changing the order 
of the elements of a sentence [340-1]. (5) By changing the phraseology 
of a sentence ; i. e., by the use of synonyms ; by changing an affirmative to 
an equivalent negative expression ; by the use of several words to express 
the sense of one ; by the abbreviation or expansion of phrases and clauses. 

Sentences for Recasting. — 1. Industry is the cause of prosperity. 2. 
The infinite surpasses all the works of human ingenuity. 3. The whale is 
larger than any other animal. 4. A profusion of beautiful objects every- 
where surrounds us. 5. Iron is the most useful of all metals. 



OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING. 289 

CCXHI.— OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING. 

804. The dash is used— 

(1) To set off a parenthetical expression; as, 

1. Lord Marmion turned — well was his need — 
And dashed his rowels in his steed. 

2. Tom Moore wrote politics at times — pointed, bitter, rankling 

politics — but he was really no politician. 

(2) To denote an abrupt change in the subject ; as, 

1. I have often told you that — but I will not repeat it. 

2. He said, " Bring me the " — but the man had disappeared. 

(3) Before a repetition for effect or explanation; as, 

1. Never is virtue left without sympathy— a sympathy dearer 

and tenderer for the misfortune that has tried it, and 
proved its fidelity. 

2. There is one feeling, and only one, that seems to pervade the 

breasts of men alike — the love of life. 

(4) To denote an unexpected turn in sentiment ; as, 

1. The young man was in love — with his profession. 

2. He is very generous — with other people's money. 

3. He had no malice in his heart — 
No ruffles on his shirt. 

(5) Before a statement of particulars, and also before a summing up of 
particulars; as, 

1. A solid has three dimensions — length, breadth, and thickness. 

2. Reputation, money, friends — all were sacrificed. 

(6) To denote hesitation, suspense, or delay; as, 

1. This man is a — a — a — but words are too feeble to do him 

justice. 

2. The pulse fluttered— stopped — went on — throbbed — stopped 

again — moved — stopped. — Shall I go on ? — No. 

(7) To denote the omission of letters or figures; as, 

1. We passed through the village of D early in the morning. 

2. The winter of 1887-88 was very cold. 

(8) At the end of a line to mark an unfinished statement, resumed on 
the next line [see 804]. 



290 APPENDIX. 

(9) After side-heads; as, 

Poetic License. — For the purpose of accommodating words to 
the measure of a line of poetry, they are changed in vari- 
ous ways [see page 259, and side-heads all through this 
book]. 

805. Marks of parenthesis are used — 

(1) To inclose something incidental or explanatory, which may be 
omitted without injuring the sense ; as, 

1. Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness here below. 

2. It behooves me to say that these three (who, by the way, are 

all dead) possessed great ability. 

806. Brackets are used — 

(1) To inclose words used for the purpose of giving an explanation, 
correcting a mistake, or supplying an omission ; as, 

1. Yours [the British] is a nation of unbounded resources. 

2. Do you know if [whether] he is at home? 
8. He is not so tall as his brother [is tall]. 

807. The index [ffi^f"] is used to point out a passage to which special 
attention is directed. 

808. Marks of reference are used to direct attention to notes in the 
margin, or at the bottom of the page ; as, 

(1) The asterisk [*]; the dagger [f ]; the double dagger [J]; the 
section [ § ] ; the parallel [ || ]. 



INDEX. 



[The numbers refer to paragraphs.] 



A or an, 66, 69, 70. 

Abbreviation, 132-136. 

Adjectives, 49-52 ; modifying ele- 
ments, 53, 54, 58, 266; definition, 
55, 60, 61, 544-588 ; arrangement, 
457-459 ; used as complements, 
495 ; not to be used as adverbs, 513 ; 
numeral, 546 (2); inflection, 552- 
571 ; double comparison, 572 ; 
plural adjectives, 574; phrase-ad- 
jectives, 583 ; ending in ly, 608 ; 
position, 266, 575-579 ; participial, 
643 ; parsing, 285 ; used as nouns, 
550, 610. 

Adjective pronouns, 547, 549. 

Adverbs, 77-86 ; definition, 87 ; same 
form as adjectives, 89, 611 ; posi- 
tion, 138, 339, 591 ; interrogative. 
350 ; not to be used as adjectives, 
513; comparison, 590; office, 592 
double negatives, 593 ; rather, 596 
independent, 599; responsives, 600 
conjunctive, 606 ; classes, 606 ; for- 
mation, 607 ; parsing, 285 ; modal, 
592. 

Adverbial phrase, 363, 623 exp. 

Adverbial clause, 665, 709, page 
211. 

Adverbial objective, 377, 615. 

A few, 583. 

Ago, 597. 

A little, 583. 



Alone, 581. 

Allegory, 790. 

Ambiguity, 783. 

Analysis, definition, 62. Oral models, 

63,* 80, 92, 101, 113, 153, 154, 242, 

365, 394, 478, 503, 531, 624, 629, 

644 ; complex sentences, 662, 663, 

713. Written models, 120, 367; 

complex sentences, 663, 679. 
And also, 333. 
And not, 333. 
And yet, 707. 
As well as, 333. 
At once, 398. 
Another, 586. 
Antecedent, 145. 
Anticipative subject, 632 f. n. 
Apostrophe, 226-228, 231. 
Apposition, 473-482 ; case, 479, 480, 

487; position of an appositive 

noun, 486 ; appositive phrase, 476 ; 

parsing, 481. 
Articles, uses, 73, 74, 448-456. 
As, joining words in apposition, 484 ; 

relative pronoun, 676 ; conjunctive 

adverb, 661. 
Asterisk, 807. 
Attribute complement, 493-502 ; 

similarity to appositive use, 494; 

parsing, 504. 
Auxiliary verbs, 299-301, 469-471, 

736. 



292 



INDEX. 



Bad construction improved, 654, 
720. 

Be (verb), 505-508, 511, 761 ; con- 
jugation, 757. 

Beside and besides, 405. 

Between or among, 119 note, 415. 

Brackets, 806. 

But, conjunction, 418, 612 ; adjective 
or adverb, 612 ; preposition, 418, 
612. 

But if, 707. 

But that, 707. 

But what should not be used for 
but that, page 281 f. n. 

Capital letters, 19, 23, 130, 131, 542, 
page 11 f. n. 

Case, definition, 252. Nominative, 
229, 248, 256 ; independent by ad- 
dress, 527 ; by pleonasm, 703 ; ab- 
solute, 702. Possessive, formation, 
226-228, 249,. 254, 256, 487-489. 
Objective, 250, 255, 256, 357, 481, 
622, 639. 

Caret, 141. 

Clauses. Adverbial, 659; condensed, 
665, 702 ; clauses of comparison, 
718 ; conditional clauses, 718. Ad- 
jective (relative) clauses, 668, 669 ; 
position, 693 ; restrictive, 680-684 ; 
office, 697 ; condensed, 700. Sub- 
stantive, 711. 

Clearness, 781. 

Comma, rules, 102, 155 exp., 369, 
372, 432, 440-446, 477, 485, 532, 
653, 661, 683. 

Comparison, adjectives, 552 ; ad- 
verbs, 590. 

Complements, object, 106 ; attribute, 
493-495. 

Complex sentences, 659-714; classi- 
fication, 714. 



Compounds, words, 156; sentences, 
97, 100; classification, 715; con- 
tracted, 147-152. 

Composition lessons, 32, 75, 94, 137, 
139, 155, 199-201, 224, 246, 296, 
316, 336, 352, 396, 490, 685, 701, 
720. 

Composition writing, arrangement, 
31 ; directions, 64, 65 ; topical out- 
lines, 65, 75, 104, 224. 

Conditional clauses, 758-760. 

Conjunctions, 96, 99; primary use, 
152; elements they connect, 437; 
co-ordinate, 704-706 ; subordinate, 
707 ; correlatives, 708. 

Conjunctive adverbs, 660, 661 ; pars- 
ing, 664. 

Conjunctive pronouns, Q6Q. 

Contractions, words, 231, 267-269; 
sentences, 147-152, 434-438 ; 
clauses, 700, 702. ' 

Conjugation, 739-757. 

Copula, page 168 f. n., 511. 

Dagger, 807. 

Dative object, 378 f. n. 

Declension, definition, 259 ; personal 
pronouns, 261 ; relative pronouns, 
673. 

Dash, 804. 

Defective verbs, 766. 

Dependent clauses, 659, 667, 709- 
712. 

Diagramming, simple sentence, 121, 
154, 367; complex sentence, 663, 
679; simple, complex, and com- 
pound, 777. 

Different from, 412. 

Bach other, 587 f. n. 

Element, definition, 57. 

Elder, 560. 

Ellipsis, 376. 



I 



INDEX. 



293 



Elliptical phrases, prepositional, 376- 
378 ; infinitive phrases, 630, 631. 

Elliptical clauses, 718. 

Elision, 763. 

Else, 581 ; some one else's book, 489 
rem. 

Enough, 581, 604. 

English grammar, definition, 34, 779. 

Etymology, 36, 162. 

Examples in false syntax, 784. 

Explanatory or, 484 note. 

Expletive, page 201 f. n. 

False syntax, 778. 

Factitive object, 481 note. 

Farther, further, 561. 

Figures of rhetoric, 785. 

Finite verb, page 196 exp. 

From after different, 412. 

Gender, 162-182; definition, 169; 
forms, 171-173. 

Get, 425. 

Grammatical subject, 59 f. n. 

Had rather, had better, 397. 

Hyperbole, 794. 

Hyphen, 31, 140. 

Ideas, 1-4 ; related ideas, 93, 100. 

Indicative mode, 733-744, 758. 

Idioms, 397 ; idiomatic phrases, 398, 
399, 603. 

If instead of whether^ page 281 f. n. 

Imperative mode, 755. 

Indirect object, 378. 

Indefinite it, 290. 

Independent element, 526-543. 
Infinitives and infinitive phrases, 
621-635 ; used as adjectives or 
adverbs, page 196 exp., 623, 624; 
used substantively, 628 ; tense, 
page 253; elliptical infinitives, 630- 
633; have indirect subjects, page 
196 exp., 712 exp. ; used as predi- 



cate-verb, in a dependent clause, 
712 ; uses, 767-769 ; parsing, 625, 
629. 
Interjections, 534-543 ; parsing, 543, 

in model for analysis. 
Intermediate expressions, 431. 
Interrogative adjectives and adverbs, 

349, 350. 
Interrogative pronouns, 694. 
Intransitive verbs, 108, 109. 
Inverted order, 340-342, 496, 661 

note. 
Is gone, are come, 523. 
Irregular verbs, 461, 465 ; list, 764. 
Irony, 795. 
Introductory it, 632; introductory 

there, 598. 
Letter-writing, page 52. 
Like and unlike; as adjectives or 
adverbs, 380 ; as prepositions, 427 ; 
not to be used as conjunctions, 427. 
Lie and lay, how to use, 491. 
Logical subject, 59 f. n. 
Many a, 583. 

Means, singular or plural, 217, sen- 
tences 3 and 4. 
Members, 98. 
Merely, 589. 

Metaphors, 788 ; mixed, 789. 
Metonymy, 792. 
Modal adverbs, 592. 
Mode, 730, 731. 
Modified subject, 59. 
More than, 603. 
Misused words, 424-427. 
Names, 5, 6. 

Name-form of nouns, 229, 251. 
Near, nigh, 381. 
Nearly, 589. 

Negative adverbs, 91, 593. 
No, none, 585. 



294 



INDEX. 



Not only, 589. 

Nominative case, 229, 248, 256, 527, 
702, 703. 

Nouns, 7-12; proper and common, 
122-131; abstract, 215; inflection, 
162-231; collective, 218-223; re- 
lation forms, 225-241 ; used inde- 
pendently, 526-531 ; used abso- 
lutely, 702 ; parsing, 284. 

Number, 189-217 ; proper nouns, 
211, 212; letters and figures, 203. 

Objects (things), 1-9. 

Object complement, 106 ; del, Ill ; 
kindred meaning, 116 ; indirect 
object, 378; factitive object, 481 
note; object of prepositions, 356, 
357; object of an infinitive, 623; 
object of a participle, 639, 640; 
object phrase, 628, 646 ; object 
clause, 697, 711. 

Obscurity, 782. 

Of late, 603. 

Of old, 603. 

Older, elder, 559, 560. 

One, other, 587. 

Only, 581, 588. 

Opposite, 381. 

Or connects nouns in apposition, 484. 

Order, natural, 337, 339 ; rhetorical, 
340-342, 496. 

Orthography, 35. 

Parable, 791. 

Paragraph, 31. 

Parenthesis, 805. 

Parsing, def., 244; written models, 
245, 258 ; remarks, 281 ; oral 
models for nouns, personal pro- 
nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and 
conjunctions, 282-286 ; verbs, 324 ; 
prepositions, 375; noun in appo- 
sition, 481 , attribute complement, 



504 ; passive verb, 520 ; active 
verb, 525 ; interjections, 541, 543, 
in model for analysis ; infinitive 
verb, 625, 629; participles, 645; 
conjunctive adverb, 664; relative 
pronoun, 692, 695, 699 ; verbs, 749 ; 
analytical parsing, 343-347. 

Part of speech, 40 ; del, 41. 

Participles, 461-463, 636-658, page 
253 ; adjective use, 641 ; substan- 
tive use, 646 ; del, 649, 652 ; modi- 
fied by a possessive, 657; kinds, 
651, 755 ; have indirect subjects, 
637 exp. ; parsing, 645. 

Passive voice, 518-524. 

Person, 185. 

Personification, 178-182. 

Phrase, del, 355; subject, object, 
attribute, 628. 

Phrase, prepositional, 360; office, 
363; position, 364; arrangement, 
368, 373, 374 ; object omitted, 382 ; 
compound, 383 ; complex, 391-393. 

Phrase, infinitive, 623. 

Phrase, participial, 640. 

Phrase, idiomatic, 398, 399, 603. 

Phrase-adjective, 583. 

Phrase-adverb, 602. 

Phrase-preposition, 403, 404. 

Pleonasm, 530, 703. 

Poetry, 796. 

Poetic license, 763. 

Potential mode, 745-749. 

Predicate, del, 44 ; simple, 47 ; modi- 
fied, or entire, 77, 78; principal 
part, 112. 

Predicate-verb, 78. 

Prepositions, 353-395 ; del, 361 ; 
office, 362; list, 362; omitted, 376, 
379 ; used as adverbs, 382 ; proper 
use, 405-418 ; unnecessary use, 



INDEX. 



295 



420 ; improper omission, 421 ; used 
as adjectives, 422 ; parsing, 375. 

Pronouns, 143 ; antecedent, 145 ; 
kinds, 232, 292, 547, 668-693 ; sin- 
gular and plural number, 146 ; 
agreement with antecedent, 175, 
270-278, 691. 

Pronouns, personal, 232; def., 233; 
relation forms, 237-241 ; double 
possessives, 287-289 ; compound, 
291 ; parsing, 283. 

Pronouns, interrogative, 694. 

Pronouns, relative, 292-295; 666- 
693 ; parsing, 692, 695. 

Proper nouns, 22, 122-131. 

Punctuation, period, 23, 28, 133 ; in- 
terrogation point, 26 ; exclamation 
point, 31, 533, 536 ; quotation 
marks, 31, 279; semicolon, 721- 
725 ; colon, 726 : comma, 102, 155 
exp., 369, 372, 432, 440-446, 477, 
485, 532, 653, 661, 683. 

Quotations, 31, page 11 f. n. ; direct 
and indirect, 279, 280. 

Rather, 596. 

Recasting sentences, page 288. 

Redundant verbs, 765. 

Relations of words in a sentence, 243. 

Relation-forms of words, 229, 237- 
241, 247-266. 

Relative pronouns, 292-295, 668-693; 
compound, 671 ; declension, 673 ; 
the relative what, 677 f. n. ; that 
preferable to who or which, 675 ; 
as a relative, 676 ; restrictive- 
clause, 680-684; unlike personal 
pronouns, 686, 687 ; gender unim- 
portant, 688 ; position, 693 ; ellip- 
sis, 698 ; parsing, 692, 695. 

Relative adverbs, 710 f. n. 

Responsive adverbs, 600, 601. 



Responsive pronouns, 696. 

Review by sentences, 351, 385-390. 

Rhetoric, 780. 

Rhetorical figures, 178-182, 785-795. 

Rhetorical faults, 779-783. 

Rhetorical order, 340-342, 496, 661 
note. 

Rules for capitals, 774. 

Rules for semicolon, 721-725. 

Rules for colon, 726. 

Rules for construction, case, 256; 
agreement of pronoun with ante- 
cedent, 271-273, 691; agreement 
of verb with its subject, 323, 327- 
333 ; object of a preposition, 357 ; 
noun in apposition, 480 ; attribute 
complement, 501, 775. 

Rhyme, 798. 

Senses, the five, 2, 3. 

Series of words, 439-441. 

Sentences, 13; def., 15, 20, 93; de- 
clarative, 21 ; interrogative, 25, 
117, 348 ; imperative, 25, 118 ; ex- 
clamatory, 30 ; simple, 95 ; prin- 
cipal parts, 112; compound, 97; 
Contracted compounds, 147-152 ; 
classification, 715; complex, 659- 
698 ; classification, 714. 

Shall and will, uses, 741 f . n., 770-772. 

Should and would, 773. 

Same, 676. 

Simile, 787. 

Sit, set, how to use, 491. 

So, 617, adverb or adjective. 

Subject, def., 43 ; simple, 47 ; modi- 
fied, 59 : grammatical, 59 f . n. ; 
logical, 59 f. n. 

Subject-phrase, 628, 646. 

Subject-clause, 697, 711. 

Subjects for composition, 776. 

Such, 676. 



296 



INDEX. 



Substantives, 627. 

Substantive phrases, 628, 646. 

Substantive clauses, 697. 

Subjunctive mode, 750-754, 759, 760. 

Syntax, 38. 

Synecdoche, 793. 

Synopsis, 762. 

Synthesis, 75 f. n., 103, 119, 155, 246, 
296, 316, 352, 366, 396, 490, 685, 701. 

Tautology, page 282 (12). 

Than after different, 412; should 
follow else, other, and otherwise, 
page 281 f. n. 

That, uses, 549, 574, 710; plural, 574. 

The, 66, 67 ; an adverb, 452. 

There, introductory, 598. 

Tenses, 297-310, 735, 739-744. 

Transitive verbs, 106, 107, 110, 114- 
116. 

Transposed order, 340-342, 496, 661, 
note. 

Unthought-of, unheard-of, etc., 422. 

Unlike, 380, 427. 

Variety of expression, contracted sen- 
tences, 147-152, 434-438, 700, 702 
arrangement of phrases, 368, 373 
rhetorical order, 340-342, 496, 661 
changing a direct to an indirect 
quotation, 279, 280 ; changing de- 
clarative to interrogative sentences, 
348 ; changing complex to simple 
sentences, 702 ; compound to com- 
plex sentences, 717 ; active voice to 
the passive voice, 519 ; clauses to 
phrases, 702; recasting sentences, 
page 288. See also 119, 155, 685. 



Varying parts of speech, 609-619. 

Verbs, 16-18; del, 45; transitive, 
106, 107, 110, 114r-116, 515; in- 
transitive, 108, 109, 514, 521, 523, 
524; transitive or intransitive, 114, 
115 ; complete and incomplete, 
107 f. n., 505 ; number-forms, 199- 
201, 311 ; s-form, 312-317, 739, 740, 
note, 751 ; agreement with subject, 
199-201, 318-335, 429, 430; tense, 
297-310, 735, 739-744; verb-root, 
309; regular and irregular, 461- 
466; principal parts, 301, 466; 
auxiliary, 299-301, 469-471, 736; 
uses of auxiliaries, 467-472; pro- 
gressive form, 468, 761 ; passive 
forms, 515, 516, 524, 761 ; list of 
irregular verbs, 764. Modes, 730 ; 
del, 731; indicative, 733, 734, 
758; potential, del, 745 ; subjunc- 
tive, 750-754, 759, 760; impera- 
tive, 755 ; conjugation, 739-744, 
745-749, 754r-757; voice, 517. 

Verbs appear, feel, look, smell, taste y 
become, 505, 509, 510. 

Verbals, 626, page 203 f. n., 756. 

Verse, 797. 

Versification, 796-803. 

Voice, del, 517; active voice, 517; 
passive voice, 517. 

Will, 741 f. n., 770-772. 

Would and should, 773. 

Worth, 588. 

What, 677 1 n. 

Whether, page 281 1 n. 

Yet, 618. 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 

Laughlin's Mill's Political Economy. 
Le Conte's Compend of Geology. 

Elements of Geology. 

Linton's Historical Charts. With Revolving Supporter and Manual. 

Literature Primers. Edited by J. R. Green, M. A. 

English Grammar. English Literature. Philology. Classi- 
cal Geography. Shaksiere. Studies in Bryant. Greek 
Literature. English Grammar Exercises. Homer. Eng 
lish Composition. 

Lockyer's Elementary Lessons in Astronomy. 

Lupton's Scientific Agriculture. 

Lyte's Grammar and Composition. 

MacArtliur's Education in its Relation to Manual Industry. 

Manning's Book-Keeping. 

Marsh's Single and Double Entry Book-Keeping. 

McAdoo's Geology of Tennessee. 

Markham's History of England. 

Morris's History of England. 

Historical English Grammar. 

Model Copy-Books. With Sliding Copies. Six Numbers. 

— : Primary Series. Three Numbers. 

Morrison's Ventilation and Warming of School-Buildings. 
Morse's First Book of Zoology. 
Munsell's Psychology. 
Nicholson's Text-Book of Geology. 

Text-Book of Zoology. (Revised Edition.) 

Northend's Memory Gems. 
Choice Thoughts. 

Gems of Thought. 

Painter's History of Education. 

Preyer's Senses and the Will. Translated by II. T7. Brown. 
Quackenbos's Primary Arithmetic. 

Elementary Arithmetic. 

Mental Arithmetic. 

Practical Arithmetic. 

Higher Arithmetic. 

— Primary Grammar. 

English Grammar. 

Illustrated Lessons in our Language. 

First Lessons in Composition. 

r Composition and Rhetoric. 

Elementary History of the United States. (New Edition.) 

School History of the United States. 

American History. 

Illustrated School History of the World. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Rains's Chemical Analysis. 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 

Bequa's Writing Movement Tablets. 

Richards's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. 

Koemer's Principles of General Grammar. 

Origin of the English People and of the English Language. 

Rosenkranz's Philosophy of Education. 

Science Primers. Edited by Professors Huxley, Roscoe. and Stewart. 
Introductory. Chemistry. Physics. Physical Geography. 
Geology. Physiology. Astronomy. Botany. Logic. Inveic- 
tional Geometry. Pianoforte-Playing. Political Econ- 
omy. Natural Resources of the United States. 

Sensenig's Numbers Symbolized. 

Sewell's Child's History of Rome. 

Child's History of Greece. 

Shaw's Selections for Reproduction. 
Shepherd's Historical Reader. 
Song Wave, The. 

Spalding's English Literature. 

Spencer's Education. 

Standard Supplementary Readers : 

I. Easy Steps for Little Feet. II. Golden Book ot Choice Reading. 
III. Book of Tales. IV. Readings in Nature's Book. V. Seven 
American Classics. VI. Seven British Classics. 
Stickney's Child's Book of Language. 

Teacher's Edition of the same. 

Letters and Lessons in Language. 

Letters and Lessons in Grammar. 

Studies in Language. 

Sully's Hand-Book of Psychology. 

Outlines of Psychology. 

Tappan's Elementary Geometry. 
Taylor's (Bayard) History of Germany. 
Tracy's Physiology. 

Trowbridge's New Physics. 

Thornton's Modern Stenographer. 

Walker's Health Lessons. 

Wavelet (The). 

Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book. 

W r illard's Synopsis of General History. 

Williamson's Integral and Differential Calculus 

Williams's Applied Geology. 

Wilson's Logic. 

Wood's Companion First Reader. 

Youmans's New Chemistry. 

Youmans's (Eliza A.) First Book of Botany. (New Edition.) 

Descriptive Botany. 

D. Appleton & Co., New York, will send a Descriptive Catalogue of 
English, Latin, Greek, French. German, Spanish, Italian, Hebrew, and 
Syriac Text-Books, to those applying for it. 



